Criminology: Mass Incarceration, Labeling Theory, Deterrence, and Policing

Comprehensive review flashcards covering mass incarceration, labeling theory, deterrence theory, capital punishment, probation, parole, and policing based on class lectures and assigned readings.

What are the three primary reasons discussed for why mass incarceration did not effectively reduce crime?

1. Incarceration is not an effective deterrent; 2. Incarceration is overused; 3. Incarceration is "criminogenic."

What does it mean to say that incarceration is "criminogenic"?

It means that the experience of incarceration itself produces, fosters, or leads to more criminal behavior.

How does differential association theory explain why incarceration can lead to more crime?

Through the school-of-crime hypothesis, where individuals learn criminal behaviors, values, and techniques from associating with other incarcerated offenders.

How does control theory explain why incarceration is criminogenic?

Through the weakening of social bonds hypothesis, specifically by severing or undermining prosocial bonds to marriage, work, and voting.

According to labeling theory, how does stigma contribute to increased crime?

Crime results from the audience's reaction to behavior rather than the behavior itself; the negative stigma and labels applied by institutions define self-image and sustain criminal behavior.

How is household wealth defined in the context of American social stratification?

$$\text{Wealth} = \text{total assets (e.g., housing, savings, stocks, retirement plans, income)} - \text{total liabilities (debts, loans)}$$

What are the six sequential stages of the Labeling Process?

1. The Initial "Criminal" Act; 2. Detection by the System; 3. Application of The Label; 4. Creation of a New Identity; 5. Acceptance of The Label; 6. Amplification.

What occurs during Stage 1 (The Initial Criminal Act) of the Labeling Process?

Individuals do not define themselves as "criminals" and desire to avoid that status; their initial behavior often has few consequences because it goes unnoticed or is forgotten.

What occurs during Stage 2 (Detection by the System) of the Labeling Process?

Rules and laws are differentially enforced based on individuals' social and economic power, subjecting certain populations to greater supervision and social control.

What concept did Howard Becker (1969) introduce regarding the creation of criminal rules and laws?

The concept of "moral entrepreneurs," defined as people who use their power and influence to lead crusades against perceived "immoral acts."

What historical moral panic in the mid-to-late $1980\text{s}$ served as a primary example of policy change driven by moral entrepreneurs?

The moral panic surrounding crack cocaine, in which policymakers believed crack was $100$ times worse than powder cocaine.

What is the only pharmacological difference between crack cocaine and powder cocaine?

Crack cocaine is prepared by mixing powder cocaine with baking soda and water.

Under the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, how much powder cocaine was required to trigger a mandatory minimum sentence of $5\text{ years}$?

$$500\text{ grams}$$

Under the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, how much crack cocaine was required to trigger a mandatory minimum sentence of $5\text{ years}$?

$$5\text{ grams}$$

What was the sentencing disparity ratio between crack cocaine and powder cocaine established by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986?

A $100\text{ to }1$ disparity.

Under the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, what quantities of LSD, marijuana, and heroin triggered a $5\text{-year}$ mandatory minimum sentence?

LSD: $1\text{ gram}$; Marijuana: $100\text{ plants}$; Heroin: $100\text{ grams}$.

How did the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010 alter the crack-to-powder cocaine sentencing disparity?

It raised the crack cocaine threshold for a $5\text{-year}$ mandatory minimum to $28\text{ grams}$ while keeping powder cocaine at $500\text{ grams}$, reducing the disparity to $18\text{ to }1$.

What was the significance of the First Step Act of 2019 regarding cocaine sentencing?

It applied the provisions of the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010 retroactively and reduced sentences for other drug offenses.

Where and how does Stage 3 (Application of the Label) typically occur?

It occurs in ritualized settings such as a courtroom or public hearing, where society permanently affixes a criminal label, converting conventional citizens into "criminals."

According to Shannon et al. (2017), approximately how many individuals in the United States hold felony-level criminal records?

About $19\text{ million}$ individuals.

What occurs during Stage 4 (Creation of a New Identity) of the Labeling Process?

The label becomes part of the person's permanent record and the community's perception, transforming the individual into an "outsider" looking in on conventional society.

What five major collateral losses or restrictions can result directly from a felony conviction?

Loss of employment, denial of university admission/funding, loss of professional licenses, loss of child custody, and denial of public housing.

According to the audit study by Agan and Starr (2017), how much did a low-level felony record reduce employer callback rates?

It reduced employer callback rates by $40\%$.

What percentage of four-year colleges require applicants to disclose their criminal history?

$$72\%$$

What restriction does the FAFSA form impose on applicants with criminal convictions?

It states that students convicted of the possession or sale of illegal drugs while enrolled have limited eligibility for federal student aid.

In Stewart and Uggen's (2019) study on college admissions, what were the acceptance rates for applicants without versus with a felony record?

No felony record: $90\%$; With a felony record: $74.6\%$.

What occurs during Stage 5 (Acceptance of the Label) of the Labeling Process?

Societal treatment of the individual as a criminal increases the likelihood that they internalize the label into their self-concept; attempts to resist the label are interpreted as signs of deviance.

What occurs during Stage 6 (Amplification) of the Labeling Process?

The individual associates primarily with other labeled individuals, reinforcing a criminal trajectory that is difficult to change.

What data source was used for the quantitative longitudinal test of labeling theory discussed in the lecture?

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88).

What was the sample design and follow-up timeline for the NELS:88 study?

A nationally representative sample of eighth-graders across over $1{,}000$ schools surveyed in $1988$, followed up in the $12\text{th}$ grade in $1992$.

What were the fighting prevalence rates in the $12\text{th}$ grade for students labeled as "troublemakers" versus non-troublemakers in the $8\text{th}$ grade?

Troublemakers: $\frac{89}{402} = 0.22$ ($22\%$); Non-troublemakers: $\frac{856}{9{,}334} = 0.09$ ($9\%$).

In the $12\text{th}$ grade follow-up of NELS:88, how many students were arrested among those labeled "not a troublemaker" versus "troublemaker" in the $8\text{th}$ grade?

Not a troublemaker: $252$ arrested ($9{,}082$ not arrested); Troublemaker: $31$ arrested ($371$ not arrested).

What are the four criminal justice policy changes proposed to explain the post-1990s crime decline?

1. Increase in incarceration; 2. Increase in probation/parole; 3. Use of the death penalty; 4. Increase in the number of police officers.

What are the five economic, social, and environmental changes proposed to explain the crime decline?

1. Fewer teenagers; 2. Removal of lead from gasoline and paint; 3. Legalization of abortion; 4. Higher educational attainment and more jobs; 5. Decline in substance use.

How does the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS, 2026) define probation?

A court-ordered period of correctional supervision in the community, generally serving as an alternative to incarceration.

How does the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS, 2026) define parole?

A period of conditional supervised release in the community following the completion of a prison term.

What unique feature distinguishes the United States prosecution system from all other countries?

The United States is the only country in the world that elects its prosecutors.

What percentage of incumbent District Attorneys in the United States run for re-election unopposed?

$$80\%$$

What key discretionary powers are held exclusively by the District Attorney?

Picking the criminal charges, making bail demands, negotiating plea bargains, and exercising absolute immunity from lawsuits.

According to the Annual Review of Criminology (2020), what was the successful completion rate for adult probationers whose cases closed in $2016$?

$50\%$ were reported as successful completions.

According to inmate surveys, what percentage of jail inmates and state/federal prisoners were on probation at the time of their arrest?

Jail inmates: $33\%$; State and federal inmates: $23\%$.

What types of financial sanctions are commonly attached to probation supervision (Harvard Law School, 2020)?

Supervision fees, mandatory class or program fees, and drug or alcohol testing fees.

What negative consequences can occur when a probationer fails to pay their court-ordered financial sanctions?

Additional reporting requirements, electronic monitoring, incarceration, extension of the probation term, and disenfranchisement.

How do probation officers and judges divide authority during a probation revocation process?

Probation officers have discretion to file for a revocation hearing, but the formal decision to incarcerate or impose other sanctions rests solely with the judge.

Why do scholars argue that mass probation acts as a "delayed path to prison" rather than an alternative sanction?

Because high failure rates and technical violations frequently result in probationers ultimately being incarcerated.

What are two key demographic and sentence characteristics of adults on parole in the United States (2026 data)?

$88\%$ are male, and $90\%$ had been incarcerated for more than $1\text{ year}$.

In the course readings, which individuals are highlighted in 'Second Chance Club' regarding probation or parole?

Kendrick, Javaron, Ronald, Sheila, Hard Head, and Damien.

In Emily Bazelon's book 'Charged', which two defendants are central to the narrative?

Kevin and Noura.

How does the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS, 2020) define capital punishment?

"The process of sentencing convicted offenders to death for the most serious crimes and carrying out that sentence."

How is Deterrence Theory fundamentally defined in criminology?

A rational choice theory in which prospective offenders balance the anticipated costs and benefits of committing a crime.

What is the operational goal of specific (individual) deterrence?

To apply just enough sanction cost to an individual offender to offset any benefits gained from committing the offense.

What is the operational mechanism of general (societal) deterrence?

Members of the general public observe that a punished offender does not gain from criminal behavior and are thereby discouraged from committing crimes.

What are the three essential components required for effective legal deterrence?

Swiftness (celerity), certainty, and severity.

What does the 'swiftness' (celerity) component of deterrence theory require?

The punishment must be administered close in time to the commission of the criminal act.

What does the 'certainty' component of deterrence theory require?

The criminal behavior must be consistently detected and punished.

What does the 'severity' component of deterrence theory require?

The magnitude of the punishment must be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime while sufficient to outweigh the benefits.

How is homicide defined in criminal legal contexts?

The killing of one human being by another human being.

What forms of killing are legally distinguished from criminal homicides?

Killings committed in legitimate self-defense and lawful state executions.

What is the statistical likelihood of an offender receiving the death penalty across all homicides committed in the United States?

$1\text{ in }1{,}000$ homicides.

What is the statistical likelihood of an offender receiving the death penalty among capital-eligible homicides?

$1\text{ in }10$ capital-eligible homicides.

What statutory criteria make a homicide eligible for the death penalty?

The homicide must be intentional, committed with premeditation, and accompanied by aggravating circumstances (such as killing a police officer, murder for hire, or multiple murders).

According to the National Academy of Sciences (2012) cohort study ($1973\text{ to }2009$), what percentage of death-sentenced inmates were actually executed?

$$15\%$$

According to the NAS (2012) data ($1973\text{ to }2009$), what percentage of capital convictions resulted in reversals, commutations, or the inmate dying on death row?

$$46\%$$

According to the NAS (2012) review ($1973\text{ to }2009$), what percentage of death row inmates remained on death row at the conclusion of the study?

$$39\%$$

How many total death sentences were handed down and how many total executions took place in the US between $1973$ and $2009$?

$8{,}115$ death sentences and $1{,}188$ executions.

How many states maintained an active death penalty statute at some point between $1973$ and $2009$?

$$40\text{ states}$$

In Texas between $1973$ and $2009$, how many death sentences and executions occurred, and what was the execution rate?

$1{,}040$ death sentences and $447$ executions, representing a $43\%$ execution rate per death sentence.

In Virginia between $1973$ and $2009$, how many death sentences and executions occurred, and what was the execution rate?

$150$ death sentences and $105$ executions, representing a $70\%$ execution rate per death sentence.

In Florida between $1973$ and $2009$, how many death sentences and executions occurred, and what was the execution rate?

$977$ death sentences and $68$ executions, representing a $7\%$ execution rate per death sentence.

In California between $1973$ and $2009$, how many death sentences and executions occurred, and what was the execution rate?

$927$ death sentences and $13$ executions, representing a $1.4\%$ execution rate per death sentence.

In Pennsylvania between $1973$ and $2009$, how many death sentences and executions occurred?

$399$ death sentences and $3$ executions ($< 1\%$ execution rate).

In New York between $1973$ and $2009$, how many death sentences and executions occurred?

$10$ death sentences and $0$ executions ($0\%$ execution rate).

From $1990\text{ to }1999$, what were California's totals for homicides, death sentences, and executions?

$28{,}781$ homicides, $334$ death sentences ($1\%$ of homicides), and $7$ executions ($0.02\%$ of homicides).

From $1990\text{ to }1999$, what were Texas's totals for homicides, death sentences, and executions?

$16{,}120$ homicides, $343$ death sentences ($2\%$ of homicides), and $162$ executions ($1\%$ of homicides).

What did Sorenson's empirical study on Texas executions between $1984$ and $1997$ conclude regarding deterrence?

There was no deterrent effect; the number of executions was unrelated to subsequent murder rates.

What did William Bailey's empirical study discover after Oklahoma resumed executions following a $25\text{-year}$ moratorium?

He found no deterrence, but instead observed a statistically significant increase in stranger killings and non-felony stranger killings.

What was the definitive conclusion of the National Academy of Sciences (2012) report regarding the death penalty's deterrent effect?

There is no credible scientific evidence or proof that the death penalty deters crime.

How did the average elapsed time between death sentencing and execution change from $1988$ to $2018$ and $2023$?

$1988\text{: } 7\text{ years}$; $2018\text{: } 20\text{ years}$; $2023\text{: } 23.25\text{ years}$.

What cultural and media dynamics fueled the call for increased policing during the $1990\text{s}$?

Intense fear of violent crime, the media-driven myth of juvenile "superpredators," political pressure, the crack epidemic, and "get tough" rhetoric.

How much total funding was authorized by the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (the 1994 Crime Bill)?

$\$30\text{ billion}$ to fund state and local incarceration, prison construction, and law enforcement hiring.

How many new local police officers were funded by the 1994 Crime Bill?

$100{,}000$ new local police officers.

What federal agency was created by the 1994 Crime Bill, and how much grant funding has it since awarded?

The Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), which has provided approximately $\$14\text{ billion}$ in funding for localities.

What did Steven Levitt's (2002) study of $122\text{ cities}$ ($1975\text{ to }1995$) find regarding police staffing and crime?

Increased police staffing reduced violent crime by $12\%$ and property crime by $8\%$.

What did Corman and Mocan (2000) find concerning the effect of increased police numbers on specific crime categories?

Increased police presence reduced robberies and burglaries, but had no significant deterrent effect on murders or auto thefts.

What did Kovandzic and Sloan (2002) find regarding the impact of police force size on crime rates?

Larger police forces led to fewer robberies, burglaries, and larcenies, but produced no measurable effect on assaults or murders.

What were the empirical findings of Roeder, Eisen, and Bowling (2015) regarding police numbers and crime decline?

Increased police officer staffing numbers had no measurable effect on violent crime or property crime.

According to Mello's (2019) evaluation of federal COPS hiring grants, how many crimes were prevented per additional hired police officer?

Each additional officer prevented approximately $4$ violent crimes and $15$ property crimes.

What methodological challenge creates potential bias when studying the relationship between police force size and crime rates?

Simultaneity / reverse causality: increases in crime rates induce cities to hire more officers, while officer hiring is simultaneously intended to reduce crime.

What experimental design did Sherman and Weisburd (1995) implement in Minneapolis to evaluate patrol presence?

A one-year randomized controlled trial doubling patrol presence dosage across $55$ out of $110$ identified crime hot spots, evaluated via $7{,}542\text{ hours}$ of observation.

What reduction in crime calls did Sherman and Weisburd (1995) observe in high-dosage patrol hot spots?

Reductions in total crime calls ranging from $6\%$ to $13\%$.

According to Sutton and Dahir (2025), how many states have passed policing reform legislation since $2020$?

$45\text{ states}$ enacted reform-oriented policing statutes, with $31\text{ states}$ enacting specific statutes addressing police use of force.

How did annual state and local government spending on policing change between $1960$, $1980$, and $2018$?

$1960\text{: } \$2\text{ billion}$; $1980\text{: } \$15\text{ billion}$; $2018\text{: } \$137\text{ billion}$.

According to former police chief Charles H. Ramsey, why has the scope of modern police work expanded significantly?

Police departments have increasingly been used to "fill the gaps where city services are not adequate."

What four non-traditional social response responsibilities have modern police departments increasingly assumed?

1. Managing domestic violence; 2. Handling substance use; 3. Responding to homeless populations; 4. Serving as security to keep students safe in schools.

What is the null hypothesis in a two-proportion z-test comparing subsequent delinquency rates between labeled and non-labeled youth?

The proportions of fighters (or arrested individuals) in the two groups are the same ($p_1 = p_2$).

According to labeling theorists, whose labels carry the greatest weight and are most likely to stick to an individual?

Labels applied by powerful authority figures, such as parents, teachers, employers, and the police.