Earth Science Exam 1 Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering Chapters 1 through 6 for Earth Science Exam 1.

Objective Observation

Unbiased and measurable facts.

Subjective Observation

Observation influenced by personal feelings.

Quantitative Measurement

Numerical and precise measurement.

Qualitative Measurement

Descriptive and less precise measurement.

Falsifiability

The core principle separating science from pseudoscience.

Aristotle

Ancient philosopher who emphasized deductive reasoning in studying nature.

Galileo

Renaissance thinker who shifted to empirical and observational methods and conducted experiments.

Uniformitarianism

Principle proposed by James Hutton stating that processes occurring today are consistent over time.

Catastrophism

Concept associated with Georges Cuvier stating Earth was shaped by sudden, short-lived events.

Science Denial

Rejection of scientific consensus often motivated by ideology rather than evidence.

Rock Cycle

The formation and transformation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Deep Time

The concept explaining Earth's $4.5\text{ billion}$-year history through geologic time.

Pseudoscience

Non-scientific claims lacking falsifiability, such as astrology.

Hypothesis

A testable and falsifiable explanation formed during the scientific method.

Plate Tectonics

Unifying theory describing Earth's outer shell as a network of plates moving due to mantle convection currents.

Continental Drift Hypothesis

Hypothesis proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1910 suggesting continents move across Earth's surface.

Mesosaurus

Matching fossil reptile found across separated landmasses supporting continental drift.

Lystrosaurus

Matching fossil land creature found across separated landmasses supporting continental drift.

Crust

Brittle, outermost chemical layer of Earth divided into oceanic (basaltic) and continental (granitic) types.

Mantle

Chemical layer composed primarily of peridotite that behaves ductilely under heat and pressure.

Core

Iron-nickel chemical layer consisting of a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.

Lithosphere

Rigid physical outer layer that forms Earth's tectonic plates.

Asthenosphere

Semi-fluid physical layer beneath the lithosphere that enables plate movement.

Mesosphere

Strong physical layer comprising the lower mantle.

Outer Core

Liquid layer of iron-nickel that generates Earth's magnetic field.

Inner Core

Solid innermost physical layer that remains solid due to immense pressure.

Convergent Boundaries

Plate boundaries involving subduction zones or collision zones where mountains like the Himalayas form.

Divergent Boundaries

Plate boundaries where continental rifting and mid-ocean ridges form new lithosphere.

Transform Boundaries

Plate boundaries where plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes.

Wilson Cycle

Cyclical process describing the formation and breakup of supercontinents through rifting, spreading, subduction, and collision.

Mineral

Naturally occurring, inorganic solid at room temperature with a crystalline structure and defined chemical composition.

Mineraloids

Substances lacking crystalline structure, such as coal and obsidian.

Rock

An aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in an atom that defines an element on the Periodic Table.

Ionic Bond

Chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms.

Covalent Bond

Chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron

The fundamental structural unit of silicate minerals, represented as $\text{SiO}_4$.

Olivine

Silicate mineral formed from isolated tetrahedra.

Pyroxenes

Group of silicate minerals formed from single chains of tetrahedra.

Amphiboles

Group of silicate minerals formed from double chains of tetrahedra.

Micas

Group of silicate minerals formed from sheets of tetrahedra.

Quartz

Silicate mineral formed from a framework of tetrahedra.

Luster

The appearance of light reflecting from a mineral's surface, classified as metallic or nonmetallic.

Streak

The color of a mineral in powdered form, which is more reliable than surface color.

Mohs Scale

Scale measuring a mineral's resistance to scratching and hardness.

Crystal Habit

External shape of a mineral determined by its internal crystal structure.

Cleavage

The tendency of a mineral to break along defined planes of structural weakness.

Fracture

The tendency of a mineral to break irregularly rather than along smooth planes.

Magma

Molten rock located underground.

Lava

Magma that erupts onto Earth's surface.

Phaneritic Texture

Coarse-grained igneous rock texture resulting from slow underground cooling, such as in granite.

Aphanitic Texture

Fine-grained igneous rock texture resulting from rapid surface cooling, such as in basalt.

Porphyritic Texture

Igneous rock texture featuring a mixture of large and small crystals.

Vesicular Texture

Igneous rock texture containing gas bubbles, as seen in pumice.

Glassy Texture

Non-crystalline igneous rock texture formed by extremely rapid cooling, as seen in obsidian.

Felsic Igneous Rocks

Light-colored igneous rocks with high silica content, such as granite and rhyolite.

Intermediate Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks with intermediate silica content, such as andesite and diorite.

Mafic Igneous Rocks

Dark igneous rocks with low silica content, such as basalt and gabbro.

Ultramafic Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks with very low silica content, consisting mostly of olivine like peridotite.

Bowen's Reaction Series

Sequence illustrating the crystallization order of minerals from cooling magma.

Geothermal Gradient

The rate at which temperature increases with depth within Earth.

Decompression Melting

Melting caused by a reduction in pressure at mid-ocean ridges or rift zones.

Flux Melting

Melting induced when water and volatiles lower the melting point of mantle rock in subduction zones.

Shield Volcanoes

Broad, low-sloped volcanoes built from low-viscosity basaltic lava, such as Mauna Loa.

Stratovolcanoes

Steep, layered volcanoes characterized by explosive eruptions, such as Mount Fuji.

Cinder Cones

Small, steep volcanoes constructed from pyroclastic fragments, such as Parícutin.

Calderas

Large volcanic depressions formed by the collapse of magma chambers, such as Yellowstone.

Pyroclastic Flows

Fast, hot clouds of ash and gas produced during explosive volcanic eruptions.

Lahars

Volcanic mudflows often triggered by melting snow or ice.

Mechanical Weathering

Physical processes breaking rocks into smaller fragments without changing composition.

Chemical Weathering

Breakdown of minerals into water-soluble components through chemical processes.

Frost Wedging

Mechanical weathering caused by the freezing and expansion of water inside rock joints.

Hydrolysis

Chemical weathering reaction between water and rock minerals.

Erosion

Transport of sediment by agents such as water, wind, or ice.

Soil Horizons

Vertical layers of soil categorized as O, A, B, C, and R horizons.

Clastic Rocks

Sedimentary rocks formed from broken fragments of pre-existing rocks, such as sandstone and shale.

Chemical Rocks

Sedimentary rocks formed by mineral precipitation from aqueous solutions, such as limestone and chert.

Organic Rocks

Sedimentary rocks derived from plant and animal remains, such as coal.

Lithification

Process converting loose sediment into solid rock through compaction and cementation.

Compaction

Lithification process where sediment grains are squeezed under immense pressure.

Cementation

Lithification process where dissolved minerals precipitate to bind sediment grains.

Diagenesis

Post-depositional physical and chemical changes in sediment, including mineral transformations.

Mudcracks

Sedimentary structures formed when wet sediment dries, shrinks, and cracks.

Protolith

The parent rock from which a metamorphic rock forms.

Metamorphism

Transformation of rocks by heat, pressure, and chemically reactive fluids without melting.

Foliation

Alignment of mineral grains into parallel layers or bands caused by directed stress.

Slate

Low-grade, fine-grained foliated metamorphic rock with slaty cleavage.

Phyllite

Foliated metamorphic rock exhibiting a shiny sheen due to larger mica grains.

Schist

Foliated metamorphic rock with visible mineral grains and a scaly appearance.

Gneiss

High-grade foliated metamorphic rock featuring alternating light and dark mineral bands.

Quartzite

Non-foliated metamorphic rock created from metamorphosed sandstone.

Marble

Non-foliated metamorphic rock created from metamorphosed limestone or dolostone.

Hornfels

Fine-grained non-foliated metamorphic rock formed near igneous intrusions.

Index Minerals

Minerals indicating specific pressure and temperature conditions during metamorphism.

Metamorphic Grade

Measure of metamorphic intensity ranging from low (slate) to high (gneiss).

Metamorphic Facies

Mineral groups stable under specific conditions of pressure and temperature.

Contact Metamorphism

Metamorphism driven by high temperature and low pressure near igneous intrusions.

Regional Metamorphism

Large-scale metamorphism occurring in mountain-building zones under high pressure and temperature.

Hydrothermal Metamorphism

Metamorphism driven by fluid-rock interactions near mid-ocean ridges or magma bodies.

Shock Metamorphism

Metamorphism resulting from meteorite impacts, producing shatter cones and tektites.