Biological Psychology: Movement, Sleep, and Learning and Memory

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering core concepts, pathways, disorders, and neurochemistry across Movement (Chapter 8), Sleep (Chapter 11), and Learning and Memory (Chapter 12).

Sarcomere

The basic contractile unit of a muscle myofibril, bounded at each end by Z lines and containing an M line in the center.

Sliding filament model

ACh triggers an action potential → calcium is released → calcium binds troponin → troponin moves tropomyosin off actin → myosin binds actin and pulls → sarcomere shortens. When calcium is taken back up, the filaments slide apart. The filaments slide; they do not shrink.

Twitch

A single muscle contraction produced by a single action potential in a muscle fiber.

Slow-twitch (type I) fibers

Muscle fibers that rely on aerobic metabolism (oxygen) and are specialized for endurance activities.

Fast-twitch type IIa fibers

Muscle fibers that are fast and fatigue-resistant, best suited for a mix of speed and endurance.

Fast-twitch type IIb fibers

Muscle fibers that rely on anaerobic metabolism (no oxygen) and are fatigable, best suited for explosive, powerful movements.

Motor unit

A functional motor entity composed of one alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates, which are all fast or all slow.

Motor pool

The complete collection of motor units that innervate a single muscle.

Size principle

The principle of motor unit recruitment order where smaller type I units are recruited first, followed by type IIa, and finally type IIb as force demands increase.

Muscle spindle

A sensory receptor located inside muscles containing intrafusal fibers that informs the brain about muscle length and rate of length change via Ia and II sensory fibers.

Golgi tendon organ

A sensory receptor situated where muscle meets tendon that monitors muscle force/contraction via Ib fibers and acts through interneurons to inhibit alpha motor neurons, preventing damage. Inhibit alpha motor neurons.

Reciprocal inhibition

A spinal reflex mechanism in antagonistic muscle pairs where an inhibitory interneuron prevents the opposing muscle from contracting while the agonist contracts.

Central pattern generators (CPGs)

Spinal cord circuits that coordinate rhythmic motor behaviors such as walking.

Corticospinal tract

A lateral motor pathway originating in the primary motor cortex that synapses directly onto spinal alpha motor neurons to control fine movements of distal limbs.

Mirror neurons

Neurons in the premotor cortex and inferior parietal lobule that fire both when executing a motor action and when observing someone else execute the same action.

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder characterized by immune attack on nicotinic ACh receptors, leading to extreme muscle weakness, treated with immunosuppressants and AChE inhibitors.

Muscular dystrophy

An inherited, sex-linked disorder primarily affecting males caused by a defect in dystrophin, presenting as absent dystrophin in Duchenne and faulty dystrophin in Becker.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

A neurodegenerative motor disorder where motor neurons in the spinal cord, brainstem, and motor cortex degenerate; approximately 15% of patients develop frontotemporal dementia.

Parkinson disease

A motor disorder characterized by tremors, a frozen facial expression, and movement difficulties due to degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra.

Huntington disease

An autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder on chromosome 4 linked to the huntingtin gene, leading to involuntary jerky movements in middle age.

Circadian rhythm

An endogenous biological rhythm repeating on an approximate 24-hour cycle.

Zeitgeber

An environmental cue or 'time giver'—such as light, food intake, temperature, or physical activity—that synchronizes an internal biological clock.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

The master circadian pacemaker located in the hypothalamus that remains active during the daytime.

Adenosine

A neurochemical that accumulates during waking hours to promote sleep pressure and declines during sleep; caffeine acts by blocking its receptors.

Preoptic area (POA)

A hypothalamic region that manages sleep debt, inhibits wakefulness-promoting circuitry, and becomes active during NREM sleep.

Default mode network (DMN)

A brain network that exhibits elevated activity during daydreaming and unfocused, resting waking states.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations, caused by a loss of orexins (hypocretins).

Habituation

A form of nonassociative learning wherein an organism's behavioral response decreases following repeated presentation of an innocuous stimulus.

Sensitization

A form of nonassociative learning where exposure to a strong or noxious stimulus enhances subsequent responsiveness to other stimuli.

Classical conditioning

An associative learning paradigm discovered by Pavlov in which a conditioned stimulus predicts an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a learned conditioned response.

Operant conditioning

An associative learning paradigm formulated by B.F. Skinner in which behaviors are shaped by consequences, increased by reinforcement and decreased by punishment.

Declarative memory

Explicit long-term memory that can be consciously recalled, divided into semantic memory (general facts and language) and episodic memory (personal autobiographical events).

Procedural memory

A form of implicit (nondeclarative) memory governing motor skills and automated behavioral routines, primarily mediated by the striatum.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A persistent enhancement of synaptic strength following high-frequency electrical stimulation of an input pathway, mediated by NMDA and AMPA glutamate receptors.

Protein kinase M zeta (PKMζ)

An enzyme required during the maintenance stage of synaptic plasticity that indefinitely anchors AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane.

Interpositus nucleus

A deep cerebellar nucleus essential for the acquisition and retention of the classically conditioned eyeblink reflex.

Hyperthymesia

A rare neurological condition marked by superior, near-complete autobiographical memory recall, associated with an enlarged amygdala.

Reconsolidation

A post-retrieval process in which accessing an established memory renders it temporarily labile and vulnerable to modification before being re-stabilized.

Age 25

Muscle loss starts at around this age

Myostatin

Limits muscle development: gene doping that targets muscle is controversial.

Alpha Motor Neurons

in the spinal cord or cranial nerve nuclei) directly contract skeletal muscles. They are large, myelinated and fast.

Neuromuscular Junction

very efficient; one action potential in the motor neuron produces a twitch in the muscle fiber. The connection between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.

Joint Receptors

tells the brain about positions and movement and the pain at extreme positions

Gamma Motor Neurons

adjust spindle length

Dynamic Nuclear Bag fibers

signal the rate (velocity) of length change. Nuclear chain and static nuclear bag signal length.

Monosynaptic Reflex

two neurons, one synapse. Example: the myotatic (stretch) reflex, such as the patellar tendon (knee-jerk) reflex. Reduced in diabetes; exaggerated in meningitis.

Reciprocal Inhibition

muscles work in antagonistic pairs (flexors bend, extensors straighten). An inhibitory interneuron stops the opposing muscle from contracting.

Flexor Reflex

Withdraws a limb from pain (like fire)

Babinski Sign

Normal in young children- signifies brain damage or drug abuse in adults.

Ventromedial pathways

mostly start in the brainstem and manage automatic movements of the neck, torso and posture.

Primary Motor Cortex (M1)

is in the precentral gyrus; it is the main source of voluntary motor control and is mapped as the motor homunculus. Supplementary motor area (SMA) manages complex sequences; premotor cortex holds the motor plan.

Toxins

Cholinergic antagonists paralyze muscles; sarin blocks acetylcholinesterase (AChE), so muscles are overstimulated

Polio

Virus that destroys spinal alpha motor neurons; vaccines nearly eradicated it

Spinal Cord Injury

Usually, permanent paralysis below the level of damage.

ALS (Lou Gehrig’s Disease)

Motor neurons in spinal cord, brainstem and motor cortex degenerate; about 15% get frontotemporal dementia

Larks

Morning People

Owls

Nigh people: most adolescents are this

Shift maladaptation syndrome

poor sleep, health and mood problems and more accidents in evening and night shift workers.

Jet Lag

is a conflict between outside zeitgebers and the internal clock; it is worse traveling east.

Melatonin

signals the start of the dark cycle and surges before the “sleep gate” opens. Cortisol also follows a daily rhythm.

Desynchronized EEG

Neurons are firing independently indicating alertness

Synchronized EEG

Neurons firing together indicating deep sleep

Possible Functions of Sleep and Dreaming

Safety, restoration, memory consolidation, and emotional regulation.

REM Dreams

Long, vivid and story like

NREM Dreams

short, logical single images with little emotion.

Threat Simulation Hypothesis

We dream to simulate possible threats, so we know how to react to them

Activation Synthesis

random brainstem activity (PGO waves) stimulates the cortex, and the cortex weaves it into a story.

Sleep Terrors

Occur within 3 hours of bed time, during partial arousal from deep NREM, no memory, can’t be comforted

Nightmares

Occurs late in the night, during REM sleep, vivid recall, scared but can be comforted

Seasonal Pattern Depression

Less winter daylight disrupts rhythms; serotonin drops; treated with light therapy and antidepressants

Delayed Sleep-wake phase

Can’t fall asleep until later than wanted

Advanced Sleep-wake phase

Sleepy early in the evening

Non-24 hour sleep wake

Cycle drifts off 24 hours; affects 50% of totally blind people

Insomnia

Most common sleep disorder; onset vs maintenance types

Sleep Apnea

Breathing stops. Obstructive vs central

SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)

Leading cause of infant death from 1 month to 1 year; sleeping position matters; brainstem abnormalities, smoke exposure, boys at higher risk

Sleepwalking

Deep NREM; much more common in children and runs in families

REM sleep behavior disorder

No REM paralysis, so people act out dreams, linked to Parkinson Disease

Restless Leg Syndrome

Urge to move legs at rest, worse in evening common with ADHD

Fruit flies and Aplysia sea slug

Studied because their nervous systems are simple with large cells

Habituation in Aplysia

the gill-withdrawal reflex weakens because sensory neurons release less neurotransmitter.

Sensitization in Aplysia

facilitating interneurons release serotonin, which increases neurotransmitter release.

Generation: Stage of Synaptic Plasticity

Occurs the first minute: Calcium enters; AMPA receptors are inserted

Stabilization: Stage of Synaptic Plasticity

Occurs 15-20 mins; dendritic spines get larger and stiffer

Consolidation: Stage of Synaptic Plasticity

Occurs 2-4 hours; new proteins stabilize spines. Happens in waves and needs transcription (DNA to RNA; CREB is key) and translation (RNA to protein)

Classical Conditioning (eyeblink)

the cerebellum, especially the interpositus nucleus, is necessary. Climbing fibers (from the inferior olive) carry the UCS; granule/parallel fibers carry the CS; both meet on Purkinje cells.

Fear Conditioning

the amygdala. CS and UCS meet in the lateral nucleus; the central nucleus triggers the fear response (freezing).

Extinction

presenting the CS without the UCS reduces the CR. Extinction is not forgetting; it is new learning tied to context, which the hippocampus manages.

Patient HM

lost his hippocampus. His short-term and procedural memory (mirror drawing) were intact, but he could not form new declarative memories.