Exam 1 Terms Review

Vocabulary flashcards covering all key terms listed across Research, Bio, Sensation and Perception, Consciousness, Health, TLI, and Motivation & Emotion for Exam 1.

Dependent variable

The outcome or factor that is measured in an experiment, which may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the outcome.

Control group

A baseline group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation.

Descriptive research

Research design aimed at observing and describing behavior, characteristics, or phenomena without manipulating variables.

Double-blind experiment

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are unaware of who is receiving the treatment or placebo.

External validity

The degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, times, and real-world situations.

Internal validity

The extent to which an experiment demonstrates a true cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables without confounding factors.

Longitudinal design

A research design in which the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for combining and analyzing the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic.

Correlational research

A type of non-experimental research that examines relationships or associations between two or more variables.

Placebo effect

A phenomenon in which a participant experiences real changes or improvements due to their expectations rather than a specific active treatment.

Random assignment

The procedure of assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between groups.

Operational definition

An explicit, precise statement describing how a variable will be defined, measured, or manipulated in a specific study.

Cross-sectional design

A research design that compares individuals of different ages or groups at a single point in time.

Case study

An in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, group, or event.

Third variable problem

A situation in correlational research where an unmeasured third variable accounts for the observed relationship between two variables.

Action potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron when it reaches its threshold of excitation.

Amygdala

A brain structure in the limbic system involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Corpus callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.

Brain stem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions like heart rate and breathing.

Frontal lobes

Portions of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, planning, decision-making, motor control, and higher-level cognitive functions.

Hippocampus

A structure in the limbic system critical for the formation of new explicit memories and spatial navigation.

Neural networks

Interconnected clusters of neurons that work together to process information and perform specific functions.

Hypothalamus

A brain structure located below the thalamus that regulates vital functions including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the endocrine system.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released by neurons across the synaptic gap to transmit signals to other neurons or target cells.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning, experience, or injury.

Central nervous system

The part of the nervous system comprising the brain and the spinal cord.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy (rest and digest).

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and mobilizes energy during stressful situations (fight or flight).

Temporal lobe

The lobe of the cerebral cortex involved in primary auditory processing, language comprehension, and memory.

Peripheral nervous system

The network of nerves connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body, including sensory and motor neurons.

Synapses

The microscopic junctions or gaps between neurons through which signals are transmitted via chemical or electrical means.

Binocular cues

Visual depth perception cues that depend on the use and coordination of both eyes.

Bottom-up processing

Information processing that begins with raw sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of brain interpretation.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, prior knowledge, expectations, and context.

Cones

Retinal photoreceptor cells concentrated in the fovea that function in daylight or well-lit conditions and detect fine detail and color.

Rods

Retinal photoreceptor cells that detect black, white, and gray, and are essential for peripheral and night vision.

Gestalt psychology

A psychological approach emphasizing that the mind perceives whole objects and patterns rather than just the sum of individual parts.

Figure-ground relationship

The visual tendency to organize perceptions into a primary central object (figure) distinct from its background (ground).

Opponent-process theory

The theory that color vision depends on opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black).

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory, influencing subsequent perception or response.

Selective Attention

The conscious focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus while filtering out or ignoring other competing stimuli.

Trichromatic theory

The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—sensitive to red, green, and blue—which combine to produce all colors.

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity to a constant, unchanging sensory stimulus over time.

Weber’s law

The principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount.

Latent content

According to Freud, the underlying, hidden, or symbolic meaning of a dream, distinct from its surface story.

Reticular activating system

A network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a central role in regulating arousal, alertness, and sleep-wake cycles.

Theory of mind

The capacity to understand and attribute mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions) to oneself and others.

REM sleep

A recurring sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements, high brain activity, vivid dreaming, and temporary muscle paralysis.

Circadian rhythms

Biological processes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness.

Executive function

Higher-level cognitive processes controlled by the prefrontal cortex, including planning, decision-making, working memory, and impulse control.

Meditation

A practice involving intentional focus and mindfulness to achieve a mentally clear, calm, and stable state.

Emotion-focused coping

Coping strategies aimed at regulating or reducing the emotional distress associated with a stressor.

General adaptation syndrome

Selye's three-stage model (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) describing the body's physiological response to chronic stress.

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)

A complex feedback system that plays a central role in regulating the body's physiological response to stress.

Problem-focused coping

Coping strategies directed at directly managing or altering a stressful situation or source of stress.

Positive reappraisal

A cognitive strategy that involves rethinking a stressful situation to identify positive meaning or growth.

Theory of planned behavior

A model stating that intention, determined by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, predicts voluntary behaviors.

Social support

The perception or experience of being cared for, valued, and assisted by a network of family, friends, and community.

Behavioral medicine

An interdisciplinary field integrating behavioral and medical knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat illness.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a topic or decision.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome all along (I knew it all along).

Intellectual disability or intellectual developmental disorder

A condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior originating before age 18.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A standardized numerical measure derived from tests designed to assess an individual's intelligence relative to peers.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty by comparing it to an existing prototype.

Base rate neglect

A cognitive bias where people ignore general statistical information (base rates) in favor of specific, individualized information.

Functional fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Heuristics

Practical mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to simplify decision-making and problem-solving.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory proposing three distinct forms of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

Broaden-and-build model

Fredrickson's model suggesting that positive emotions expand an individual's mindset and help build enduring personal resources.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards, recognition, or the avoidance of negative consequences.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by internal satisfaction, curiosity, personal enjoyment, or inherent interest in the activity itself.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a balanced, stable, or constant internal state.

Yerkes-Dodson law

The principle that performance increases with physiological arousal up to an optimal level, beyond which further arousal decreases performance.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, progressing from basic physiological needs to higher psychological needs and self-actualization.

Display rules

Cultural norms that dictate when, where, and how emotions should be expressed or controlled.

Facial feedback hypothesis

The idea that facial expressions can influence emotional experience and mood.

Negative affect

A general dimension of subjective distress involving a variety of negative mood states, such as anxiety, anger, and sadness.

Self-actualization

According to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need to fulfill one's potential and achieve self-fulfillment.