ap psych bio test

hemisphere

the brain has two of these

lateralization

there is some evidence that each brain hemisphere has its own focused functions

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

left hemisphere

specializes in language, speech, calculation, analysis

right hemisphere

specializes in more widespread processing: perception, visualization, recognition or patterns, face, and emotions

cerebral cortex

outer layer of the brain, folding in on itself, more surface area of cortex to fit into the skull (distinctly human traits including language and human consciousness

lobes

areas of the cerebral cortex, each with a specialty

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

prefrontal cortex

planning, decision-making, personality, moderating social behavior

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements, receives info from various lobes of the brain and uses this info to carry our body movements

broca’s area

located in the left frontal lobe, controls motor functions involved with speech production

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear, receives sensor input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head, includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

temporal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears, includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite eat, long term memory

wernicke’s area

located in the temporal lobe on the left side of the brain and is responsible for the comprehension of speech

auditory cortex

receives information from the ears

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing

the reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem, functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

thalamus

the brain’s sensory control center, processes and directs sensory information center, sensory “relay” station of the brain, passing info to lobes (all senses except smell)

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives

hypothalamus

coordinates the pituitary gland, regulates hunger, thirst, body temp, sex drives, reward center and dopamine release

hippocampus

formation and storage of new memories and connecting certain sensations and emotions to these memories

amygdala

two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion

neuroscience

the scientific study of the nervous system, its structures and functions

behavioral neuroscience

connection between the nervous system and behavior

lesioning studies

lesion = tissue destruction, humans with brain lesions are often the subjects of research with the goal of establishing the function of the area where their lesion occurred

brain autopsy

examinations of brain after death is currently the only way to diagnose the specific neurodivergent disorder of an individual

electroencephalograph

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface (helped understand stages of sleep)

fMRI

a technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

plasticity

the brain’s ability to change by re-organizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

functional plasticity

the brain’s ability to move functions from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas

structural plasticity

the brain’s ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of learning

contralateral organization

each cerebral hemisphere is mainly responsible for control of the contralateral side of the body

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

the nervous system

the body’s electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems (body’s electrical wiring)

central nervous system

the brain and the spinal cord (coordinates their actions and interactions)

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

motor pathway

signals from the brain to muscles/glands

sensory pathway

signals from sense receptors to the brain

somatic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the skeletal muscles

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming info from sensory receptors

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain and spinal cord to muscles

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs

reflex arc

signals sent from a sensory organ to the spinal cord, which processes the information instead of passing it on to the brain

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of internal organs

sympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic system that arouses the body

parasympathetic nervous system

division of autonomic system that calms the body

neuron

the basic building block of nervous system (receives and sends messages through an electrochemical process)

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, play a role in learning and thinking

dendrites

neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages

soma

the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the cell and keeping the neuron functional

axon

passes messages through its branches, fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings

myelin sheath

tissue layer segmentally encasing axons of some neurons

nodes of ranvier

areas of axon that are not insulated by myelin

axon terminal

tips at the end of the axon, send signal to other neurons

synapse

meeting point between neurons, at the end of the terminal button is a gap known as a synapse

synaptic vesicles

store various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse

synaptic cleft

less than a millionth of an inch wide, where the synapse occurs

receptor sites

receive signals, the lock where the neurotransmitter molecule fits into

neural transmitter

process by which information travels through a neuron

electrochemical

the electrical part happens inside the neuron itself, the chemical part takes place between the neurons

resting potential

the state of a neuron when it’s not firing

selectively permeable membrane

the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to pass through while preventing or restricting other ions from moving

action potential

a neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

firing threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all or none principle

a neuron’s reaction of either firing with full strength or not firing

refractory period

period of time during which a cell is incapable of repeating an action potential

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

excitatory neurotransmitters

excite connecting neurons and cause them to fire, more action potentials are triggered

inhibitory neurotransmitters

inhibit the next neurons from firing

acetylcholine

involved in thought, learning, and memory, involved in activating muscle action (surplus: muscle spasms, deficit: control paralysis, dementia, alzheimer’s, excitatory, first neurotransmitter discovered)

serotonin

connected to feelings of well-being and happiness, regulates sleep cycle (surplus: hallucinations, deficit: depression, anxiety, ocd, inhibitory, major part of popular drug treatment)

dopamine

related to reward and motivation (surplus: addiction, schizophrenia, deficit: tardive dyskinesia, parkinsons, adhd, muscular rigidity, both, associated with addiction, movement, and motivation, repeating behaviors that lead to release)

norepinephrine

involved in promoting wakefulness, alertness, and arousal (surplus: anxiety, deficit: depression, excitatory, contract blood vessels to increase blood flow)

GABA

major inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows things down, calming the central nervous system (surplus: sleep/eating disorder, deficit: insomnia, seizures, tremors, inhibitory, reduces brain activity)

glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter that increases brain activity including long-term memory (surplus: migraines, seizures, deficit: cognitive impairments, excitatory, most common neurotransmitter in brain)

endorphins

regulates perception of pain and stress (surplus: no warning of pain, deficit: increased pain sensitivity, fatigue, inhibitory, released in the brain during exercise, pain, produces a feeling of well-being)

substance p

involved in the perception of pain (surplus: increased inflammation, deficit: slowed reflexes, excitatory, promotes inflammation in response to an injury)

agonist drugs

a molecule that simulates a response

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a response

reuptake inhibitors

drugs that block reuptake to increase neurotransmitter availability

ssris

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

endocrine system

the body’s slow chemical communication system, a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream (essential to communication throughout the body)

hormones

manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland, under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

oxytocin

powerful hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, regulates social interaction

epinephrine

hormone produced in high stress or exciting situations, physical boost and heightened awareness

cortisol

body’s main stress hormone, works with certain parts of your brain to control your mood, motivation, and fear

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

sensitive period

for some behaviors or characteristics, a particular environment is important at a particular time in life for the genetic information to be expressed