PSYCH 1010: Chapter 6

Memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

encoding

process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

storage

process of maintaining information in memory over time

retrieval

process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

memories are

constructed

We combine information we already have with new information coming through our senses

Semantic encoding

process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

Associated with activity in the lower left part of the frontal lobe and inner part of the left temporal lobe

sematic judgments

Think about the meaning of words

ex. Is a hat a type of clothing?

visual imagery encoding

process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

Associated with activity in the occipital lobe

Organizational encoding

process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

Associated with activity in the upper surface of the left frontal lobe

mnemonics

encoding strategies that improve subsequent retrieval

memory and evolution

Memory is built to enhance our chances of survival

Modern approach: superior recall in scenarios that involve planning, but not survival, such as planning a dinner party

sensory memory

type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

more than one kind

iconic memory

sensory

fast-decaying store of visual information

echoic memory

sensory

fast-decaying store of auditory information

short-term memory

type of storage that holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

we have to attend to incoming information for it to…

Enter short-term memory

As soon as we become distracted, the information is lost

Rehearsal

process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

serial position effect

observation that the first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle

first few = primacy effect

last few = recency effect

In short term memory the more information put in…

the more information that falls out

it can hold about 7 meaningful items at once

Chunking

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters/chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory

Working memory

Active maintenance of information in short-term storage

includes two subsystems: visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual), phonological loop (verbal)

Episodic buffer: integrates visual and verbal information

Central executive: coordinates subsystems and buffer

Long term storage

type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

hippocampal region of the brain is critical in putting new information here; it acts as an index to put separate pieces into one memory

anterograde amnesia

inability to transfer new information from short-term storage into long-term storage

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

different aspects of a single memory (sights, sounds, smells, emotions)

are stored in different places in the cortex

consolidation

process by which memories become stable in the brain

Memories become more resistant to disruption

The act of recalling, thinking about, and talking about memories helps, as well as sleep

Reconsolidation

Memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again

the act of sending a neurotransmitter across a synapse

changes the synapse and strengthens the connection

long term storage involves the growth of

new synaptic connections between neurons

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

process whereby repeated communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

Retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

Encoding specificity principle

states that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which information was initially encoded

State-dependent retrieval

process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

transfer-appropriate processing

idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

Cognitive Interview

procedure developed in order to enhance the memory of eyewitnesses for everyday experiences

Retrieval induced forgetting

process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

trying to retrieve information

activates the left frontal lobe, reflects mental effort of struggling to dredge up the past

Successfully remembering an experience

activates the hippocampal region, and parts of the brain that play a role in processing sensory features of experiences

Explicit memory

Occurs when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences

“I remember…”

Implicit memory

Occurs when past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

Riding a bike, tying your shoes

Procedural memory

Refers to the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or “knowing how” to do things

Priming

An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task

can persist over very long periods of time

Perceptual priming

reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item, the visual characteristics of a word or picture

depends on regions towards the back of the brain and right cerebral hemisphere

Conceptual priming

reflects implicit memory for the meaning of the word or how you would use an object

depends on regions towards the front of the brain and left hemisphere

Semantic memory

A network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Episodic memory

The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

we rely heavily on this to envision our personal futures

Divergent creative thinking

generating creative ideas by combining different types of information in new ways

Coupling between core and executive networks is a signature feature

collaborative inhibition

the same number of individuals working together recall fewer things/items than they would on their own

Transience

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

involves a gradual switch from specific to more general memories

Retroactive interference

situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier

Ex. work week blending together, difficult to remember Monday on Friday

Proactive interference

situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

Ex. Parking in the same place at work, getting confused about where you parked

Absentmindedness

A lapse in attention that results in memory failure

commonly caused by lack of attention

Less activity in the ____ when attention is divided

left frontal lobe

region during encoding that is associated with better memory

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future/remembering to remember

Blocking

tip-of-the-tongue experiences

A failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it

common for names of people and places

Memory Misattribution

Assigning a recollection or idea to the wrong source

Source memory

knowing where our memories came from

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

false recognition

a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before

Suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

Bias

Refers to the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences

Consistency bias

the bias to reconstruct the past to fit the present

Egocentric bias

Refers to the tendency to exaggerate the change between the present and the past to make ourselves look good in retrospect

Persistence

The intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget

Flashbulb memories

detailed recollection of when and where we heard about shocking events