Early American History: Confederation to the Market Revolution

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards reviewing the founding era of the United States, covering the Articles of Confederation, the Constitutional Convention, the early presidencies, foreign treaties, sectional compromises, the Market Revolution, and landmark Marshall Court decisions.

Land Ordinance of 1785

A policy for surveying and selling public western land that divided land into townships 6 miles square (36 sections), setting aside Section 16 to fund public education.

Northwest Ordinance (1787)

Legislation establishing the pathway for territories to become states on equal footing with the original states once reaching 60,000 free settlers; crucially banned slavery in the Northwest Territory.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

The agreement that formally ended the Revolutionary War, recognized U.S. independence, and set the nation's boundaries from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River.

Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787)

An armed uprising of debt-ridden Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays against farm foreclosures, which exposed the central government's inability to maintain order under the Articles of Confederation.

Mount Vernon Conference (1785)

A meeting between Virginia and Maryland at George Washington's home to resolve interstate navigation rights on the Potomac River, demonstrating the success of interstate cooperation.

Annapolis Convention (1786)

A meeting called by Alexander Hamilton to fix interstate commerce issues, attended by only 5 states, which produced a call for a broader convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation.

The Great Compromise

Also known as the Connecticut Compromise; resolved the dispute between the Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan by creating a bicameral legislature with a population-based House of Representatives and an equally represented Senate (2 per state).

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention where enslaved individuals were counted as $\frac{3}{5}$ of a person for both representation and direct taxation purposes.

Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise

An agreement granting Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign trade and tax imports, but barring export taxes and prohibiting the ban of the slave trade for 20 years (until 1808).

Supremacy Clause (Article VI)

A constitutional provision establishing that the U.S. Constitution and federal laws are the 'supreme Law of the Land,' overriding conflicting state statutes.

Separation of Powers

The division of basic government responsibilities into three distinct branches: Legislative (makes laws), Executive (enforces laws), and Judicial (interprets laws).

Checks and Balances

A constitutional system that enables each branch of government to amend or veto acts of another branch to prevent any single branch from gaining total authority.

Federalism

The fundamental constitutional principle of dividing and sharing political power between the national (federal) government and individual state governments.

The Federalist Papers

A collection of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym 'Publius' to persuade New York voters to ratify the Constitution.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

President George Washington's executive statement declaring the United States neutral in the conflict between France and Britain, establishing a precedent of non-involvement in European wars.

Citizen Genêt Affair (1793)

An incident wherein French ambassador Edmond Genêt bypassed the U.S. government to recruit American privateers against Britain, violating U.S. neutrality.

Jay Treaty (1794)

An unpopular treaty with Great Britain that prevented war and secured the evacuation of British forts in the West, though it failed to end the practice of British impressment.

Pinckney Treaty (1795)

An agreement with Spain that granted the United States free navigation of the Mississippi River and the vital 'right of deposit' at the port of New Orleans.

Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)

President Washington's final message to the nation, which warned against two main hazards: entangling permanent foreign alliances and the rise of political factionalism.

XYZ Affair (1797)

A diplomatic incident where French agents demanded bribes and loans before meeting with American diplomats, sparking anti-French sentiment and the slogan 'Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute!'

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

Federalist-passed laws designed to suppress political opposition by easing the deportation of non-citizens, extending naturalization requirements, and criminalizing false or critical statements against the government.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798–1799)

Statements secretly authored by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson responding to the Alien and Sedition Acts; advanced the compact theory of government and introduced the doctrine of nullification.

Revolution of 1800

The presidential election in which Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, representing the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing political parties in modern history.

Judiciary Act of 1801

Legislation passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress in Adams's final days in office to establish 'Midnight Judges' and secure Federalist control over the judicial branch before Jefferson's inauguration.

12th Amendment

A constitutional amendment prompted by the 1800 Electoral College tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, establishing separate ballots for President and Vice President.

Albert Gallatin

Thomas Jefferson's Secretary of the Treasury who reduced the national debt, cut federal spending, and repealed the whiskey excise tax while maintaining Alexander Hamilton's central bank structure.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

The acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon for $15 million; doubled the size of the U.S. and caused Jefferson constitutional conflict regarding strict constructionism.

Embargo Act (1807)

A law halting American exports in response to British impressment and the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair; severely hurt the U.S. domestic economy, especially in New England, without altering European policy.

Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

Legislation that replaced the Embargo Act of 1807, reopening American foreign commerce with all nations except Great Britain and France.

Macon’s Bill #2 (1810)

A trade law stating that if either Britain or France agreed to respect U.S. neutral trading rights, the U.S. would resume commerce with that nation and enact a non-importation policy against the other.

Hartford Convention (1814)

A gathering of New England Federalists to register grievances against the War of 1812 and propose constitutional changes; resulted in accusations of treason and caused the demise of the Federalist Party.

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

The agreement that ended the War of 1812 on the terms of status quo ante bellum, restoring pre-war territorial borders without addressing the issue of impressment.

Henry Clay’s American System

A three-part national economic strategy designed to integrate regional economies through a protective tariff, a re-chartered national bank, and federally funded internal improvements.

Tariff of 1816

The first explicit protective tariff in United States history, designed specifically to shield emerging domestic manufacturing from cheap British imports.

Panic of 1819

The first major peacetime financial crisis in the U.S., brought about by over-speculation in western lands and credit contraction by the Second Bank of the United States.

Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)

A pact between the United States and Great Britain that demilitarized the Great Lakes boundary along the border with Canada.

Convention of 1818

An agreement establishing the $49\text{th}$ parallel as the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase and arranging joint U.S.-British occupation of the Oregon Country.

Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)

A treaty in which Spain ceded Florida to the United States and defined the boundary between New Spain and the U.S. following Andrew Jackson's military actions during the Seminole Wars.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

A foreign policy declaration asserting that the Western Hemisphere was closed to future European colonization while pledging non-interference in existing European colonies and wars.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

A sectional agreement engineered by Henry Clay admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while banning slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of latitude $36^\circ 30'$.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

A landmark Supreme Court decision that firmly established the principle of judicial review—the authority of federal courts to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

A Supreme Court ruling confirming the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States under the 'Necessary and Proper' Clause and denying states the power to tax federal entities.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

A Supreme Court decision affirming that the federal government alone holds constitutional power over interstate commerce, invalidating state-granted steamboat monopolies.