Learning and Behavior Exam 3

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of organisms. Inherited behavioral relations are capacity for operant conditioning and capacity for respondent conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

We engage in behaviors that have positive consequences and don’t engage in behaviors that have negative consequences

Contingency

The occurence of one event depends on the occurrence of another event

Stimulus-Stimulus Contingency (pairing)

IF this stimulus occurs, THEN another stimulus follows
IF the bell rings, THEN food is presented

Behavior-Consequence Contingency

IF I do behavior, THEN I get this consequence
IF I raise my hand, THEN the teacher calls on me
IF I pinch another kid, THEN I get their toy

Behavior-Behavior Contingency

IF I do behavior, THEN I get to do different behavior
IF I do my work, THEN I can watch TV

Contingency and Functional Relations

The more contingent a relation is, the more likely it is a functional relation

Reinforcement

Stimulus change maintains or increases behavior

Extinction

No stimulus change decreases behavior

Punishment

Stimulus change decreases behavior

Do all rewards function as reinforcement?

All that matters is if it increases behavior. A reinforcement for one may be neutral to another.

Does intention to change a behavior mean that it will work?

No, just because you intend to change behavior a certain way, doesn’t mean it will. Something is a reinforcer or punisher based on outcome, not intent

Respondent Categories for Unconditioned

Physiological (unlearned): food, sex, oxygen, water, temperature

Respondent Categories for Conditioned

Safety, love/belonging, esteem, self actualization (learned): praise, good grades, attention, hugs

Factors affecting reinforcement effectiveness

Immediacy, quality, effort of behavior, context

Immediacy

How quickly a behavior is reinforced (1 sec VS 1 min VS 5 min)

Quality

High or low preference? (giftcard VS sticker)

Effort of Behavior

How much is being asked in comparison to the reinforcer

Context

Location or time in which a reinforcer is given (Kisses from mom at home VS in front of friends)

Unconditioned Reinforcer Symbol

S^R

Conditioned Reinforcer Symbol

S^r

A trainer is wanting to train their horse to bow. The trainer want to use a clicker as a conditioned reinforcer instead of relying only on unconditioned reinforcers like carrots. The click does not function as a conditioned reinforcer initially. Diagram what the trainer should do in order to make the click into a conditioned reinforcer

NS (click) / S^R (carrot) (paired repeatedly, no behavior necessary)
NS (click) becomes an S^r

Diagram what the trainer should do to determine whether the click is truly a conditioned reinforcer

R (horse bows) → S^r (click)
If R (horse bowing) increases in frequency, the NS (click) has become an S^R

Reinforcement Categories

Unconditioned, conditioned, automatic, socially mediated

Automatic

Behavior itself produces the consequence

Socially Mediated

Someone else produces the consequence

Reinforcement Types

Positive (Behavior → Stimulus is added)
Negative (Behavior → Stimulus is removed)

Escape

Terminating the current aversive stimuli (negative reinforcement)

Ex: Loud Noise → Person puts in earplugs → Noise goes away ( - )

• The person is more likely to put in earplugs when it’s loud

Avoidance

Consequently prevents a potential aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement)
Ex: Before concert starts → Put in earplugs → No loud noise ( - )

Extinction

When behavior results in absence of reinforcement

Side Effects of Extinction

Extinction burst, emotional responding, behavior variability, resurgence (behavior eventually decreases)

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of target behaviors. Uses differential reinforcement, which uses positive reinforcement for desired behaviors and extinction for undesired behaviors (eventually, smaller steps are extinguished)

Bedtime Pass Example

Bedtime resistance is a common occurrence within toddlers

R (come out of bedroom) → S^r+ (stay up with parents)

R (come out of bedroom) → S^r+ (stay up with parents)

Friman designed a bedtime pass system

R (use bedtime pass) → S^r+ (stay up with parents) (Only one pass so only get to stay up once per night)

R (come out of bedroom) → S^r+ (stay up with parents) (extinction)

Greatly reduced bedtime resistance and extinction burst

Cumulative Recorder

A tool for recording the rate of operant behavior using time and cumulative frequency. A real-time measure of behavior rate. The faster the rate of behavior, the steeper the slope (more vertical = faster, more horizontal = slower)

What do schedules of reinforcement do

Indicate the contingency for when responses will be followed by the reinforcer. Schedules have characteristic patterns of responding

Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

Every response is followed by the reinforcer

Intermittent Reinforcement (INT)

Some but not all responses are followed by a reinforcer

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed: Specified number of responses

Variable: Average number of responses or time interval

Ratio: Based on responses only

Interval: Based on responses after a period of time

Time: Based on time only

Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval, fixed time, variable time

Fixed Ratio Schedules

Reinforcer after fixed number of responses

Example: 5 responses → S^R+, 5 responses → S^R+, 5 responses → S^R+

Produces high-rate behavior with pose-reinforcement pause

Variable Ratio Schedules

Reinforcer after average number of responses

Example: 3 responses → S^R+, 8 responses → S^R+, 4 responses → S^R+

Produces high-rate behavior; no pausing

Fixed Interval Schedules

Reinforcer after responding after waiting a fixed period of time
Example: FI 1 minute:
- wait 1 minute, then respond → S^R+
- wait 1 minute, then respond → S^R+
- wait 1 minute, then respond → S^R+
- wait 30 secs, then respond → No S^R+ Didn’t wait long enough
- wait 1 minute, no response → No S^R+ Didn’t emit response
Lower to moderate responding, scalloped pausing

Escape contingency

Studying immediately decreases the existing aversiveness

Variable Interval Schedules

Reinforcer after responding after waiting an average period of time
VI 1 minute:
- wait 80 secs, then respond → SR+
- wait 30 secs, then respond → SR+
- wait 70 secs, then respond → SR+
Lower to moderate responding; no pausing

Schedules in Comparison

Using schedules of reinforcement

When trying to teach new behavior, use continuous reinforcement (CRF or FR1). Once reliably occurring, thin schedule from continuous to intermittent reinforcement (gradually reduce reinforcers)

Operant Behavior

Behavior influenced by antecedents and consequences; however, ultimately the impact of consequences affects operant behavior. Additionally, remembering operant behavior primarily involves movement of the skeletal muscles

Reinforcer

A consequence that increases operant behavior above its baseline level. It is different from a reward because rewards are beneficial consequences that we think will function as reinforcers; however, we don’t yet know if they will

Practices with Reinforcement

• More frequent, smaller reinforcers

• Check if behavior is actually increasing

• Ensure behavior is in control of the learner

• To decrease the likelihood of “choking under pressure,” smaller rewards should be arranged

• Reinforcement can increase undesired behaviors like cheating, so it’s important to ensure the desired behavior produces the reinforcer more easily than undesired means to avoid this.

Primary (unconditioned) reinforcers

Primary reinforcers are consequences that function as reinforcers because they are important for sustaining an individual's life or the continuation of a species. An example of this is sleeping when your body is tired (S^R+) or stepping out of a room that is extremely hot or cold (S^R-)

Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers

Conditioned reinforcers are consequences that function as reinforcers only after learning occurs. An example of this is receiving money (S^R+) or a check engine light (S^R-)

Template for diagraming conditioned reinforcers

NS ([   ])/SR ([  ]) (repeat several times, NO behavior necessary)

NS ([   ]) becomes Sr ([  ])

R ([  ])----->Sr ([  ])

If R([  ]) increases in the future, then the NS ([  ]) has become a Sr ([  ]).

Advantage of S^r over S^R for Animal Trainers

Animal trainers use clickers or whistles (S^r) rather than food (S^R) because S^rs can be provided more immediately after behaviors, do not interrupt the behavioral sequence, and prevent satiation.

Punisher

A contingent consequence that deceases the future probability of a behavior below its pre-punishment level

Six guidelines of effective punishment

1. Focus on reinforcement first

2. Combine punishment with extinction and/or differential reinforcement

3. Deliver punishers immediately

4. Deliver punishment contingently

5. Punish every time

6. Use a punisher in the Goldilocks zone (not too aversive and not so benign that it does not decrease behavior)

Differential reinforcement

Reinforcing one response and extinguishing other previously learned responses

Unconditioned VS Conditioned Punishers

Unconditioned punishers are biologically innate and require no prior learning, whereas conditioned punishers acquire their aversive properties through learned association with other punishers

The role of reinforcement in the act of punishing

When a person applies punishment (such as a scolding, a timeout, or a reprimand) and the annoying or harmful behavior temporarily stops, the removal of that aversive behavior negatively reinforces the punisher. Because the punisher gets immediate relief from the stressful situation, the act of punishing is reinforced and more likely to be used again in the future.

Schedule thinning

A procedure for gradually reducing the rate of reinforcement while maintaining the desired behavior. By thinning the schedule of reinforcement, we can ensure that the adaptive behavior can be maintained outside the clinic, where it will not be reinforced every time

Do continuous or intermittent schedules demonstrate higher resistance to extinction?

Intermittent schedules demonstrate higher resistance to extinction as it undergoes a partial reinforcement extinction effect, which is the direct relation between prior reinforcement rate and how quickly behavior undergoes extinction

Extinction Burst

Temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, or duration of a behavior when the reinforcement that previously maintained it is abruptly removed

Emotional responding

Emotional behavior and extinction-induced aggression when an expected reinforcer is suddenly withheld

Behavior variability

When an individual tries new actions when a previously reinforced behavior stops producing a reinforcer

Resurgence

The reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior when a newly learned replacement behavior no longer receives reinforcement

Resistance to Extinction

The persistence of a learned behavior even after the reinforcement that maintained it has been removed

Studying: What behaviors are you engaging in? What’s the reinforcer for studying? What schedule of reinforcement? Get a low grade for bad studying?

• What behaviors are you engaging in?

  • Reading, highlighting, listening

  • Reciting definitions aloud, completing practice questions

• What is the reinforcer for studying?

  • Escape from aversiveness

  • Conditioned reinforcers: getting it correct

• What schedule of reinforcement?

  • Continuous Reinforcement

• Get a low grade for bad studying?

  • Extinction for studying (need that behavioral variability and resistance to extinction)

Are good grades a reinforcer for studying?

They can be, but its usually driven by rule-governed behavior. There is also a delay between studying and getting a grade

Fixed Time

Reinforcement is provided after a specific time period has passed. There is NO response requirement

Variable Time

Reinforcement is provided after an average time period has passed. There is NO response requirement

Superstitious Behavior

Behavior that occurs because it has been followed by a reinforcer even though the behavior does not produce the reinforcer (adventitious, non-contingent)

Contingent VS Adventitious/non-contingent + Schedules

Contingent reinforcement is provided after a specific behavior. Used for FI, FR, VI, VR
Adventitious reinforcement is provided without any relation to a specific behavior. Used for FT and VT

Response Cost

Negative punishment, some amount of reinforcer is lost. Examples are fines, fate fees, and point loss

Side Effects of Punishment

Emotional responding, avoidance of punisher, countercontrol, and models punishment for the learner

Learned Helplessness

A phenomenon that occurs when an organism exposed to inescapable aversive stimuli fails to acquire typical escape responses. Immunization to learned helplessness incudes increasing resistance to extinction and teaching escape responses

Intermittent VS Differential Reinforcement