Newly made final exam review (2)

Anatomy

study of body structure and morphology

physiology

study of how body parts function

structure dictates

function

3 part of a homeostatic mechanism

1. receptor

2. control center

3. effector

Receptor

detects a stimulus/change

control center

evaluates change against the set point

effector

muscle or gland that produces the corrective response

negative feedback

reverse the deviation back towards the set point

(ex. body temperature and blood glucose)

positive feedback

amplifies/increase the change temporarily

(ex. blood clotting and uterine contractions)

Serous membrane

double layered membrane that reduce friction via serous fluid

serous membranes

visceral layer: covers the organs directly

Parietal layer: lines the cavity wall
pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominopelvic organ)

ionic bond

formed when electrons are transferred creating opposing charged ions that attract

(ex.NaCl)

Covalent Bond

formed when atoms share electrons (can be polar or nonpolar)

what is the normal blood ph

7.35-7.45

acidemia/acidosis

blood ph drop to 7.0-7.3 (Fatigue or disorientation)

alkalemia/alkalosis

blood pH rises to 7.5-7.8 (agitation and dizziness)

cell membrane structure & fluid mosaic model

phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic (Water-soluable) heads on surfaces and hydrophobic (water insoluble)fatty acid tails inside. Stabilized by cholesterol and embedded with proteins/carbohydrates

passive transport mechanism

• require no ATP

• diffusion: high → low concentration directly through bilayer

• facilitated diffusion: uses membrane channels/carries for polar/changed solutes

• osmosis: water diffusion across a selectively permeable membrane

Isotonic

equal solute concentration; no net water movement

hypertonic

higher solute concentration outside: water leaves → cell shrivel (crenation)

hypotonic

lower solute concentration outside: water enters → cell swells/burst (lysis)

4 stages of mitosis

prophase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase

prophase

chromosomes condence, envelop disperses, spindle forms

metaphase

chromosomes line up the cell equator

anaphase

sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

telophase

nuclear membranes reform around chromatin; spindle breaks down

anabolism

builds larger molecules from smaller ones; requires energy

(ex. dehydration synthesis)

catabolism

breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones; release energy

(ex. hydrolysis)

what do enzymes do and what is their active site

Globular protein catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

They are not consumed and fit specific substrates at their active sites

3 stages of cellular respiration

• glycolysis

• citric acid/krebs cycle

• electron transport chain

glycolysis

cytosol, anaerobic

2 ATP net

citric acid/kreb cycle

mitochondria, aerobic

2 ATP

electron transport chain

mitochondria, aerobic

28 ATP

ATP yield

total theoretical yield: up to 32-36 ATP per glucose

transcription

copying DNA into mRNA inside the nucleus using RNA polymerase

translation

reading mRNA codons at ribosomes in the cytoplasm; tRNA brings matching amino acids to build a polypeptide chain

four primary tissue types

• epithelial

• connective

• muscle

• nervous

epithelial tissue

covers/lines surfaces, forms glands; avascular

connective tissue

binds, protects, support; abundant extracellular matrix

muscle tissue

contractile cells for movement (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)

nervous tissue

neurons and neuroglia for impulse transmission and support

epithelial tissue shapes

squamous= flat

cuboidal=cube

columnar= tall

simple epithelial tissue

single layer

(diffusion/secretion/absorption)

stratified epithelial tissue

multiple layers

(protection)

transitional epithelial tissue

stretches in response to tension

(lines bladder/ureters)

merocrine secretion

fluid release via exocytosis with no cell damage

(ex. salivary, eccrine sweat)

apocrine secretion

pinches off portions of cell apex during secretion

(ex. mammary)

holocrine secretion

entire cell ruptures and dies to release product

(ex. sebaceous glands)

three types of muscle tissue

skeletal

smooth

cardiac

skeletal tissue

• striated

• voluntary

• multinucleated

• long cylinders

smooth muscle tissue

• non-striated

• involuntary

• spindle shape

• single nucleus (hollow organs/vessels)

Cardiac muscle tissue

• striated

• involuntary

• branched

• single nucleus

• intercalated disc (heart only)

Epidermis

• outermost layer

• stratified squamous epithelium

• avascular

dermis

• deeper layer

• connective tissue with blood vessels

• nerves and glands

Subcutaneous (hypodermis)

• under dermis

• areolar and adipose tissue

• not part of true skin

epidermal strate (deepest to superfical)

1. stratum basale (diving cells, melanocytes)

2. stratum spinosum

3. stratum granulosum

4. stratum lucidum (thick skin on palms or soles only)

5. stratum corneum (outer dead, flat, keratinized cells)

B S G L C

Eccrine

most numerous, open directly to pores; respond to elevated body temperature or thermoregulation

Apocrine

axillary and groin regions; open into hair follicles; respond to stress, pain and sexual arousal

1st degree burn

(superficial partical )

injuries epidermis only; red,warm, and no scarring

2nd degree burn

(deep partial)

injuries epidermis and some derms; blisters form

3rd degree burn

(full thickness)

destroys epidermis, dermis, and accessory structures; often requires skin grafts

osteoblasts

bone forming cells (deposit matrix)

osteoclasts

bone resorbing cell (break down/ dissolve matrix)

osteocytes

mature bone cells located in lacunae

intramembranous

forms from sheet-like layers of primitive connective tissue (mesenchyme); flat skull bones, clavicles

endochondral

forms from pre-existing hyaline cartilage models; long bone and most of the skeleton

epiphyseal plate zone

1. zone of resting cartilage (anchors plate)

2. zone of proliferating cartilage (dividing chondrocytes)

3. zone of hypertrophic cartilage (enlarging/lengthening cells)

4. zone of calcified cartilage (calcified matrix, cells die, invades by osteoblasts)

high blood Ca2+

thyroid releases calcitonin→ activates osteoblasts to store calcium in bones

low blood Ca2+

parathyroid gland release parathyroid hormone (PTH) → stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium into blood

four steps of bone fracture repair

1. hematoma formation (blood clot)

2. cartilaginous (soft) callus formation

3. bony (hard) callus replaces fibrocartilage

4. bone remodeling by osteoclasts and osteoblasts

synarthrotic

immovable

amphiarthrotic

slightly movable

diarthrotic

freely movable (All synovial joints)

ball and socket joint

multiaxial + rotational

(hip and shoulder)

condylar

biaxial, no rotation

(metacarphal-phalangeal)

plane/gliding

noaxial sliding

(carpals, tarsals)

Hinge

uniaxial

(elbow, knee, interphalangeal)

pivot

uniaxial rotation

(dens of axis & atlas)

saddle

biaxial

(carpal & metacarpals of thumb)

astrocytes

blood brain barriers, structural support, scar tissue

oligodendrocytes

produces myelin sheath in the CNS

Microglia

phagocytic immune defense

ependymal cell

line ventricles, help regulate/ circulate CSF

resting potential

-70mv

(high Na+ outside, high K+ inside, maintained by Na+/K+ ATPase pump)

threshold

-55mv

depolarization

voltage-gated Na+ channels open; Na+ rushes in (→ +30mV)

repolarization

Na+ channels close, voltage gated K+ channels open; K+ rushes out

Hyperpolarization

slight overshoot below -70 mV before resting state returns

Saltatory conduction

impulse conduction along myelinated axon where action potentials jump from one node of ranvier to the next. Dramatically faster than continuous conduction in unmyelinated fibers

meninges (outer to inner)

1. dura mater

2. arachnoid

3. pia mater

Dura mater

tough, outermost dense connective tissue layer

arachnoid mater

web-like middle layer; subarachnoid space holds CSF

Pia Mater

delicate innermost layer with blood vessels; adheres to CNS tissue

frontal

higher intellectual reasoning, motor cortex, broca’s area (motor speech)

parietal

cutaneous sensory area (touch/pressure/pain)

temporal

auditory area, sensory speech (wernicke’s area)

occipital

visual processing

insula

deep within lateral sulcus; emotional responses and taste

midbrain

reflex centers for visual/auditory responses (corpora quadrigemina)

pons

relays impulses between cerebrum and cerebellum; rhythm of breathing