psyc 1000 chapter 1-3 all material complete study guide

Vocabulary practice cards covering introductory psychology history, research methodologies, and the biological foundations of behaviour from Chapters 1-3.

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind (thought and emotion) and behaviour.

Empiricism

The practice of gaining knowledge through objective observation and experience rather than relying solely on intuition or authority.

Introspection

A experimental process used by Wilhelm Wundt involving objective self-reflection and inspection of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

Structuralism

An early perspective in psychology developed by Edward Titchener that sought to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into its basic component parts.

Functionalism

A psychological approach championed by William James, influenced by Charles Darwin, that focused on how mental activities and behaviour help an organism adapt to its environment.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A psychological perspective founded by Sigmund Freud emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping human behaviour.

Gestalt Psychology

A psychological movement introduced by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler proposing that sensory elements are perceived as a combined whole rather than just the sum of individual parts.

Behaviorism

A school of thought championed by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner asserting that psychology must restrict its focus to objectively observable and measurable behaviour.

Humanism

A psychological perspective led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers that highlights human potential, personal growth, self-actualization, and individual agency for good.

Cognitive Revolution

A period beginning in the 1950s where psychology re-established focus on internal mental processes, bolstered by interdisciplinary contributions from linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science.

Francis Sumner

The first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States (1920), whose research challenged bias in educational and intelligence testing.

George I. Sanchez

A psychologist who identified systemic language and cultural barriers in standardized intelligence testing for Mexican American children.

Mamie and Kenneth Clark

Researchers whose influential doll preference studies demonstrated the harmful psychological effects of racial segregation, contributing to the Brown v. Board of Education legal decision.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman officially awarded a PhD in psychology (1894), who focused her extensive research on animal behaviour.

Mary Whiton Calkins

A memory researcher who fulfilled all doctoral requirements at Harvard University but was denied the degree due to her gender, later becoming the first female president of the American Psychological Association.

Mary Cover Jones

A pioneer in behaviour therapy who demonstrated classical fear conditioning and successful fear removal techniques in young children.

Martha Bernal

The first Latina person to earn a PhD in psychology, recognized for her research regarding Mexican American youth.

Biopsychosocial Model

An integrative approach in health psychology postulating that health and illness stem from an interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Operational Definition

A clear, precise description of how a variable will be specifically measured, manipulated, or quantified within a scientific study.

Deductive Reasoning

A form of logical reasoning that begins with general premises or broad theories and tests them against specific observations.

Inductive Reasoning

A form of logical reasoning that begins with specific empirical observations and builds up to form general conclusions or broader theories.

Falsifiable

The requirement that a scientific hypothesis or theory must be capable of being disproven through empirical testing and observation.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research approach involving the systematic observation and recording of behaviour in its natural environment without intervention.

Case Study

An in-depth observational investigation centered on a single individual, group, or unique event to gather detailed qualitative information.

Longitudinal Design

A research design where data is gathered from the same individual participants repeatedly across multiple points in time.

Cross-Sectional Design

A research design that compares different segments or age groups of a population simultaneously at a single point in time.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A statistical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ indicating the direction (sign) and strength (magnitude) of the linear relationship between two variables.

Types of Correlation

Scatter plot representations showing (a) positive correlation where variables move together, (b) negative correlation where variables move inversely, and (c) no correlation.

Illusory Correlation

The false perception of a relationship between two variables where no real association exists, often driven by confirmation bias.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable in an experiment that is deliberately manipulated or altered by the experimenter to assess its causal effect on an outcome.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured by a researcher to observe the effect or outcome resulting from changes in the independent variable.

Random Assignment

An experimental technique for placing participants into experimental or control groups randomly, ensuring every subject has an equal chance of being in either condition.

Random Sampling

A method of subject selection ensuring every individual in the broader target population has an equal likelihood of being chosen for the study sample.

Confounding Variable

An unmeasured extraneous factor that varies alongside the independent variable, potentially providing a plausible alternative explanation for experimental results.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental control procedure in which neither the human participants nor the researchers directly interacting with them know group assignments.

Reliability

The overall consistency and repeatability of a research measure across repeated trials or different raters.

Validity

The extent to which a test, scale, or study measures accurately what it claims or intends to measure.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An ethics committee that reviews research proposals involving human participants to guarantee ethical standards, voluntary consent, and participant protection.

Debriefing

A post-experimental meeting where researchers provide participants with full information about the study purpose, goals, and any necessary deception used.

Neuron

The basic building block and specialized cell of the nervous system responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting electrochemical signals.

Glia (Glial Cells)

Supportive non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide structural support, insulation, metabolic nutrients, waste removal, and immune defence.

Dendrites

Branching structures extending from the neuron cell body that receive incoming chemical signals from other surrounding neurons.

Axon

A singular, long cytoplasmic extension that transmits electrical signals away from the neuron cell body toward terminal buttons.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance produced by glial cells that coats the axon to insulate it and dramatically increase the speed of electrical signal conduction.

Nodes of Ranvier

Regularly spaced unmyelinated gaps along an axon membrane where action potentials are actively regenerated.

Terminal Buttons

Swollen structures at the end of axon terminals containing synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters ready for release into the synapse.

Synaptic Cleft

The minute fluid-filled space bridging the presynaptic axon terminal and the postsynaptic dendritic receptor membrane.

Resting Potential

The steady electrical membrane potential of an inactive neuron, typically measured at $-70\,\text{mV}$, with the inside negatively charged relative to the outside.

Threshold of Excitation

The membrane potential value (approximately $-55\,\text{mV}$) that must be reached to trigger an active action potential.

Action Potential

An all-or-none electrical impulse created by the rapid influx of sodium ions ($\text{Na}^+$) followed by the efflux of potassium ions ($\text{K}^+$) moving down an axon.

All-or-None Principle

The rule stating that an action potential is either triggered fully once threshold is met or does not fire at all, maintaining constant amplitude regardless of stimulus strength.

Synaptic Transmission and Reuptake

The process where action potentials cause vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synapse, binding to postsynaptic receptors before excess chemicals are taken back up into the presynaptic terminal.

Reuptake

The mechanism by which neurotransmitter molecules are actively pumped back from the synaptic cleft into the presynaptic terminal for repackaging and reuse.

Agonist

A drug or chemical molecule that binds to a receptor site and mimics or increases the functional activity of a specific neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A drug or chemical molecule that binds to a receptor site and blocks, inhibits, or diminishes the functional activity of a specific neurotransmitter.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A major neurotransmitter responsible for muscle stimulation, memory, learning, and attention, which is modulated by nicotine.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter regulating mood, sleep, motor activity, and pleasure/reward pathways, affected by cocaine and methamphetamine.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that reduces neuronal excitability, anxiety, and stress, targeted by Valium and Ambien.

Glutamate

The principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system critical for learning, memory formation, and movement, associated with ketamine.

Serotonin

A key neurotransmitter modulating mood, sleep, and appetite, targeted by antidepressant SSRIs like Prozac, as well as MDMA and LSD.

Somatic Nervous System

The voluntary component of the peripheral nervous system that carries sensory input to the CNS (afferent) and motor instructions from the CNS to skeletal muscles (efferent).

Autonomic Nervous System

The involuntary division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating smooth muscle, internal cardiac organs, glands, and basic life processes.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system division responsible for mobilizing energy during flight-or-fight situations, accelerating heart rate and dilating pupils.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The autonomic division that conserves body energy and promotes 'rest and digest' activities, returning physiological processes to normalcy.

Homeostasis

A physiological state of internal balance, optimal physiological equilibrium, and biological stability.

Reflex Circuit

A rapid autonomic response circuit where sensory neurons transmit pain information directly to an interneuron and motor neuron in the spinal cord to trigger immediate muscle contraction before reaching the brain.

Medulla

A hindbrain structure located at the base of the brainstem that automatically controls vital survival functions like heart rate and breathing.

Cerebellum

A prominent hindbrain structure essential for coordinating motor balance, posture, voluntary movement, and procedural motor learning.

Thalamus

The forebrain's primary sensory routing station that relays sensory information (excluding smell) directly to functional cortical regions.

Hypothalamus

A forebrain limbic structure regulating homeostatic processes including hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual drives, and pituitary gland output.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped limbic structure deeply involved in processing emotion, threat evaluation, fear, and emotional memory integration.

Hippocampus

A essential limbic structure critical for memory consolidation, learning, and converting short-term experiences into long-term declarative memory.

Corpus Callosum

A large, thick tract of transverse neural fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres to allow interhemispheric communication.

Cerebral Cortex Lobes

The four main surface regions of the cerebral cortex: frontal lobe (orange), parietal lobe (blue), temporal lobe (green), and occipital lobe (yellow).

Frontal Lobe

The anterior cortical lobe involved in motor control (motor cortex), high-level executive functions, planning, reasoning, impulse control, and motor speech (Broca's area).

Parietal Lobe

The cerebral cortex lobe situated behind the frontal lobe containing the somatosensory cortex, responsible for processing bodily tactile touch, temperature, and spatial positioning.

Temporal Lobe

The lateral cortical lobe containing the auditory cortex and Wernicke's area, vital for hearing, memory formation, facial recognition, and language comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

The posterior region of the cerebral cortex dedicated entirely to interpreting visual information within the primary visual cortex.

Broca's Area

A specialized region usually in the left frontal lobe essential for controlling muscle movements required for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

A critical functional area located in the left temporal lobe required for processing, understanding, and comprehending written and spoken language.

Phineas Gage

A historic case study of a railroad foreman whose severe frontal lobe injury from an iron rod provided early historical evidence for localized brain function and personality.

Henry Molaison (H.M.)

A famous amnesia patient whose surgical bilateral hippocampus removal to treat severe epilepsy eliminated his capacity to form new declarative long-term memories.

Neuroplasticity

The nervous system's capacity to modify its structural organization, form new synaptic connections, prune unused pathways, or adapt to learning, experience, and trauma.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A non-invasive neuroimaging method using electrodes placed on the scalp to record precise continuous electrical brainwave activity and event-related potentials (ERPs).