HLT 4307 TEST 1 EXAM PREP QUESTIONS

explained like its for a 5th grader for maximum information retention + understanding (cramming lol)

Belmont Report

A summary of basic ethical principles of human subjects research developed by the commission, forming the basis of many federal regulations. 1979

RESPECT FOR PERSONS

• Individuals are autonomous agents

• Those with reduced autonomy deserve added protection

Beneficence

do no intentional harm

Maximize benefits (relative to risks)

Justice

• Treat individuals fairly

• Distribute risks and benefits equitably

Informed consent

• Clear explanation of risks and benefits

• Understanding the voluntary nature of participation

• The ability to withdraw at any time

• Comprehension not just a signature

Voluntary participation and right to withdraw

Respect for persons

Directional vs non directional hypothesis

• A directional hypothesis is when you make a guess that points in one specific direction, like deciding ahead of time exactly who will win a game.

• A non-directional hypothesis is when you just guess that things will turn out differently, without picking a winner ahead of time.

Fair selection of research participants

• Study populations must be chosen based on research questions not because a group is easy to manipulate

• Share the burdens and benefits of research fairly across different social racial ethnic and economic groups

• Avoid exploiting vulnerable populations like prisoners or children

• Must use belmont report guidelines

Inductive reasoning

• Bottom up logical process

• Opposite logical approaches to reach real conclusions

• Moving from specific observations to general theories

• Ex: Observation : This stray cat has claws; Observation 2: Every other cat generally has claws; conclusion: all stray cats have claws (probable, but exceptions exist)

• Deductive reasoning

• Starts with general reasoning/ statement

• Down up; general to specific points

• Arguments are classified as either valid or invalid

• Ex: general premise: all men are mortal; specific premise: socrates is a man ; conclusion: socrates is mortal

Literature coverage strategies : Exhaustive

• A search metric prioritization where the goal is to capture 100% of relevant articles, willingly accept a high volume of irrelevant results (noise) in the process to avoid missing anything.

• Example: Searching for "cancer" OR "oncology" OR "malignancy" OR "tumor*" yields 50,000 results, most of which you will skip, but it guarantees you don't miss the 200 crucial papers buried inside.

Literature coverage strategies : Representative

• Definition: A strategy that samples a representative cross-section of the literature rather than attempting to retrieve every single publication, used when the body of research is vast or secondary.

  
  

• Example: Reviewing the top 20 most-cited articles on classroom technology from the past five years to summarize major trends without needing an exhaustive search.

Literature coverage strategies : Pivotal

• Definition: a targeted plan used in scientific, regulatory, or medical writing to find and include only the most critical, high-impact research (known as "pivotal" studies or trials) rather than reviewing every single paper ever published

  
  

• Example: Searching for key historical clinical trials—such as the Framingham Heart Study or the DCCT trial—that established fundamental guidelines in medicine.

Type of literature review: Narrative

• Definition: A story-like summary that gives a big, general overview of a topic by talking about what different books or articles say, without following strict or rigid search rules.

  
  

• Example: Reading a chapter in a science textbook that tells you all about the history of space travel and where humans might go next.

Type of literature reviews: Descriptive Mapping + Examples

• Definition: A visual or structured outline that categorizes the existing literature on a topic to show what research exists, where it is located, and where the gaps are—without analyzing the quality or results of the studies in detail.

• Example: Creating a chart or table mapping out all published studies on "AI tools in healthcare" by publication year, country, and study type (e.g., survey vs. experiment) to see which areas need more research.

Types of literature reviews: Scoping + Examples

• Definition: A big-picture review that quickly explores a topic to see how much information exists, what main ideas are being studied, and if there is enough research to do a bigger project later.

  
  

• Example: Before spending a year studying video games, you spend a week counting how many books and articles exist about "video games and focus" just to see if people have already written a lot about it.

Systematic Literature review example

• Example: Following a strict recipe to search every single library and book in the world to answer one exact question, like: "Does sugar cause weight gain?"

Types of literature reviews: Systematic

• Definition: A super detailed and step-by-step review that follows strict rules to find, check, and combine every single study on one exact question so nothing gets left out.

  
  

• Example: Following a strict recipe to search every single library and book in the world to answer one exact question, like: "Does drinking milk before bed really help you sleep better?"

Meta analysis

• Definition: A super-smart math method where you combine the numbers and results from many different studies into one giant master calculation to find the final, ultimate answer.

  
  

Example of Meta Analysis

• Example: Taking the test scores of 1,000 kids from 20 different schools who all tried a new reading app, and combining all their test numbers together to figure out the exact average score boost.

Unit of Analysis

• Definition: The main "who" or "what" that you are studying, measuring, and collecting data about in your research.

  
  

• Example: If you survey 100 students to see how much sleep they get, your ____ __ _____ is the individual student. But if you compare the average test scores of 20 different schools, your ____ __ _____ is the school (the organization/group).

Thinking like a researcher

Thinking like a researcher: Constructs

• Definition: An invisible or abstract idea (like a feeling, thought, or personality trait) that you can't touch or directly see, but can measure using clues, behaviors, or test scores.

  
  

Example: Constructs

• Example: "Happiness" or "Friendliness"—you can't hold "happiness" in your hand, but you can measure it by counting how many times someone smiles, laughs, or says they feel good!

Mediating vs Moderating variables

A _____ variable is the middle step that explains how or why something causes a result (A > Middle>B), while a _____ variable is the dial that changes how strong or weak that result is depending on who or what you look at.

Thinking like a researcher

Example: mediating vs moderating variable

• ______ (The Middle Step): Doing homework (A) leads to better understanding (______), which then leads to higher test grades (B). (Understanding is the bridge between homework and grades).

• ______ (The Dial): Homework helps improve test grades, but how much sleep you get (______) turns the dial up or down—homework helps a lot if you are well-rested, but not as much if you are super tired!

Variables: independent and dependent variables

• Definition: An ______ variable is the cause (the thing you change or control), while the ______ variable is the effect (the result you measure to see what happened).

Example: independent and dependent variables

• Example: If you want to see how sunlight helps a plant grow, the amount of sunlight is the ______ variable (the thing you change), and the plant's height is the ______ variable (the result you measure to see if the sunlight worked).

Research design: Experimental research

• Definition: A super-controlled test where you change one thing on purpose to see what happens, while keeping everything else the exact same so you can prove your change caused the result.

  
  

Example: Experimental research

• Example: Giving a speed-boost potion to half the players in a video game while keeping the other half normal—making sure every other rule, map, and controller stays identical—to prove whether the potion actually makes players finish the level faster.

Recognizing how a construct has been operationalized in a research study.

Figure out the exact game plan a researcher used to turn an invisible idea into something they can actually count, measure, or see with their eyes.

Example of Recognizing how a construct has been operationalized in a research study

If the invisible idea is "being a good friend," realizing the researcher decided to measure it by counting how many times a kid shares their lunch snacks during recess.

Using indicators to measure constructs

Definition: Using clues or signs you can actually see, hear, or count to measure an invisible idea.

Example: You can't see "bravery" with your eyes, so you use clues (_______) like stepping up to speak in front of the class or trying a scary roller coaster for the first time to measure how brave someone is!

Unidimensional va multidimensional constructs

• Definition: A ______ construct is an idea with only one simple piece to measure, while a _______ construct is a bigger idea made up of several different pieces combined together.

Unidimensional vs Multidimensional Example

1: Measuring your height you only need one quick measurement with a tape measure.

2: Measuring how fit you are you can't just check one thing; you have to test your running speed, your muscle strength, and how far you can stretch!

Random selection vs random assignment example

• Example 1: Pulling names out of a giant hat to pick 20 kids out of the whole school to be part of a science experiment.

• Example 2: Once you have those 20 kids, flipping a coin for each one to decide randomly whether they go to Team A (gets the new superpower-juice) or Team B (gets water), making sure the teams are totally fair.

External validity

• Whether a test or experiment's result actually works in the real world for other people and places, instead of only working in a tiny, perfect lab.

Construct validity

Whether your test or measuring tool actually checks the exact invisible idea you want it to, without accidentally measuring something completely different by mistake.

Construct validity example

If you build a test called "How brave are you?", but the questions are written with such tricky, hard words that people only fail because they don't understand the vocabulary, your test has terrible construct validity; you accidentally tested their reading skills instead of their bravery!

Example internal validity

If you give players a special energy drink and they win a video game, but you realize they also practiced for three extra hours right before playing, your experiment has terrible ____ validity—you can't prove whether the drink actually helped them win or if it was just the extra practice!

Internal validity

• Whether you can truly trust that your specific action caused the result, or if some sneaky, hidden accident caused it instead.

Ratio (level of measurement)

• A type of measurement where numbers have equal gaps and a real, absolute zero point (where zero means "nothing at all"), which lets you proudly say something is "twice as much" as something else.

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Ratio Example

• Measuring weight in pounds—0 pounds means literally weighing nothing at all, and a 10-pound backpack is literally twice as heavy as a 5-pound backpack!

Interval

• type of measurement where the gaps between numbers are always equal and steady, but zero doesn't mean "nothing at all" (it's just a random spot on the scale), which means you can't say one thing is "twice as much" as another.

Interval example

if it is 40 degrees outside, it's not "twice as hot" as 20 degrees, and 0 degrees doesn't mean there is literally zero heat in the air; it's just a freezing cold point on the thermometer!

Ordinal + example

A type of measurement where you can put things in a strict order or rank (like first, second, third), but you don't know the exact mathematical distance or space between the steps.

Ribbons at a school race—you know for sure that 1st place finished faster than 2nd, and 2nd faster than 3rd, but you don't know how many seconds apart they were (the gap between 1st and 2nd could be a tiny blink, while the gap to 3rd place is a mile long!).

Nominal measurement

• A type of measurement where you just sort things into different categories, labels, or groups with zero order, ranking, or math value—meaning one group isn't higher, bigger, or better than another.

Nominal measurement example

• Example: Favorite ice cream flavors (chocolate, vanilla, strawberry)—you can group everyone by what they like best, but you can't say that chocolate is "higher" or "greater" than strawberry; they are just different names!

Statistical conclusion validity

Definition: Whether the math and numbers in an experiment are actually correct and prove a real connection, or if the results were just a lucky coincidence or a math mistake.

If you flip a coin three times, get "heads" every single time, and proudly announce, "I invented a magic coin that always lands on heads!"—your ____ ____ ____ is terrible because you didn't test it enough times, and it was just a random fluke!

Validity

• Whether a test or experiment is actually telling you the truth and measuring what it's supposed to measure, rather than being broken, sneaky, or giving you a fake answer.

• Example: If you try to measure your exact height using a toy rubber band that stretches every time you pull it, you'll get a wildly different (and wrong!) answer every time. A study with good validity uses a tool that gives you the honest, real truth instead of fooling you!

Physical or clinical measurement

Using special tools, machines, or physical checks to measure real, bodily facts about the inside or outside of a person, rather than just asking them questions or watching their behavior.

Example of Physical or clinical measurement

Using a stethoscope to listen to a heartbeat or a blood pressure cuff to check how hard someone's heart is pumping during a health study.

Direct observational

Watching people live in action with your own eyes (or a camera) as they naturally do their thing, without interrupting or asking them questions.

Direct observational example

A researcher sitting quietly in a field study to log real-time feeding and social behaviors of animals in their natural habitat.

Interview example

A research method where a researcher sits down to ask someone questions face-to-face (or over a video call) and listens closely to their detailed answers, stories, and thoughts.

Survey/ questionnaire

A research method where you hand out a list of written questions (or show them on a computer screen) for people to answer on their own, usually letting you gather answers from a giant group of people all at once.

Secondary data analysis

A research method where you don't collect brand-new information yourself, but instead borrow and study data that someone else already collected in the past to look for new secrets or answers.

Secondary data analysis example

means using information that someone else already collected and looking at it to answer your own question

Primary data collection

A research method where you roll up your sleeves and collect brand-new, original information yourself directly from the source, rather than borrowing or reusing old information that someone else gathered.

Observational

A research method where you watch and listen to people, animals, or things naturally in their own environment without changing anything or interfering.

Quasi Experimental

A type of study where you test out a new idea and compare groups, but you don't get to randomly mix people up—instead, you have to use groups that already naturally exist.

Quasi Experimental example

Trying out a fun new math game with all the kids in Classroom A while Classroom B uses the regular way, because the school won't let you mix the students up into brand-new random groups!

Randomized Control Trial

Definition: The gold-standard scientific experiment where researchers randomly sort participants into different groups—giving the special treatment to one group (like a new medicine or a fun learning game) and a plain placebo or regular routine to the other—to see if the treatment actually makes a difference.

True Experiment

A study where researchers have total control—they actively change one thing (the independent variable) and randomly assign people or things into groups, allowing them to proudly prove cause and effect.

Binary

• A variable or measurement that only has two possible categories or choices—like a simple yes/no, true/false, or on/off switch with no in-betweens.

Likert scale

Definition: A rating scale used in surveys where people choose a number or option to show how much they agree or disagree with a statement, usually ranging from one extreme to another (like "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree").

Guttman

A type of survey scale where questions are lined up in a strict staircase of difficulty or intensity, meaning that if someone agrees with a tough or extreme question, they automatically agree with all the easier ones leading up to it.

Guttman Example

• A superhero obstacle course checklist that goes in order:

  1. "Can you jump over a puddle?"

  2. "Can you leap over a park bench?"

  3. "Can you jump over a skyscraper?" If a person says "Yes" to leaping over a skyscraper, you instantly know they can definitely do the easier ones too!

Semantic Differential

Definition: A survey scale that uses two opposite descriptive words at either end (like hot/cold or happy/sad) with spaces in between, letting people place a mark to show how they feel on that sliding spectrum.

Semantic differential example

Asking a kid to rate their first day of school by putting an "X" on a line between two opposites:

• Boring—————— X —Exciting

Qualitative methods

• Research that focuses on words, stories, feelings, and descriptions instead of numbers or math, trying to deeply understand why people think or act a certain way.

Qualitative Methods example

• Instead of counting numbers, sitting down and interviewing kids for an hour to hear their exact stories about why reading makes them feel happy.

Which represents a Binary Scale?

A)"Do you have a library card? (Check: Yes / No)"

B)"How would you rate today's school lunch on a scale from 1 (Yuck) to 5 (Yum)?"

C)Rate how you feel about math homework right now:" Frustrating--X------- Fun

• A

Which represents Likert scale (measurement formats)

A)"Check every box that is true for you in order:" Can you ride a tricycle? Can you ride a bicycle without training wheels? Can you ride a unicycle across a tightrope?

B)"How would you rate today's school lunch on a scale from 1 (Yuck) to 5 (Yum)?"

C)"Do you have a library card? (Check: Yes / No)"

• B

Which represents a Semantic Differential (Differentiating measurement formats)

A)"Rate how you feel about math homework right now:" Frustrating---------X--- Fun

B)"Check every box that is true for you in order:" Can you ride a tricycle? Can you ride a bicycle without training wheels? Can you ride a unicycle across a tightrope?

C)Asking kids a survey question with only two options: "Do you have a pet dog? (Yes / No)"

A

Which represents the Guttman scale

A) Rate how you feel about math homework right now:" Frustrating--X--------Fun

B) "How would you rate today's school lunch on a scale from 1 (Yuck) to 5 (Yum)?"

C) "Check every box that is true for you in order:" Can you ride a tricycle? Can you ride a bicycle without training wheels? Can you ride a unicycle across a tightrope?

C