week 8 and 9: memory, judgement, and decision making

memory

the capacity to store and receive information in order to facilitate learning

stages of memory

encoding (getting information into memory), storage (keeping information in memory), retrieval (accessing information from memory)

automatic processing

encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and meaning of words; ex: remembering the last time you studied for a test

effortful processing

encoding of details that require effort and attention on your part; ex: ex: remembering the content of what you studied

levels of processing

the multiple levels at which encoding can occur, ranging from shallow to deep(visual (surface)—>acoustic (sound)—>semantic (meaning))

self-referential encoding

encoding based on an event’s relation to our self-concept, leads to enhanced memory for the event

storage stages

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

retrieval stages

recall (generating remembered information), recognition (selecting the correct information from an array of options), relearning (learning the information that you previously learned)

free recall

no cues to aid retrieval

cued-recall

retrieval cues that help bring the memories back to mind

encoding specificity principle

remember best when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions, greater match=better memory; physical context: context-dependent memory, physiological state: state-dependent memory, mood: mood-dependent memory

capacity

how much info can be held

duration

how long info can be held

sensory memory

holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds; substantial storage capacity, but very limited duration; a fleeting sensory memory is made when information is initially processed by each sensory system (eye=iconic,1 sec, ear=echoic,5-10 secs)

short-term memory

retaining info for a short amount of time (15-30 secs); holds a limited amount of info; can be forgotten or transferred to long term memory

chunking

organizing information into meaningful “chunks” increases short-term span

working memory

holding/manipulating/processing during that short time; actively “working”; enhances the duration of short-term memories and facilitates transfer into long-term storage

phonological loop

storage of sounds, rehearsal, manipulation of verbal information

visuo-spatial sketchpad

storage of visual information, manipulation of visual images and spatial information

central executive

acts as attention buffer, decides what gets transferred into the two rehearsal systems

long-term memory

retaining info for a long amount of time (minutes to decades); no limits in capacity or duration

serial position effects

primacy effect-memory for the first items of a list tends to be better; recency effect-memory for the last items of a list tends to be better

explicit memory

memories we can recall intentionally; can be stated, declarative memory—episodic memory and semantic memory

implicit memory

memories we cannot recall deliberately, nondeclarative memory—procedural, priming, and emotional conditioning

episodic memory

• recollection of events

• specific experiences

• typically have time and place components

semantic memory

• recollection of facts

• general knowledge (about words, concepts, language-based knowledge and facts)

procedural memory

• information about the way we do things

• you don’t think about it, you just do it

• we cannot describe them easily

priming

when exposure to one stimulus affects the response to a later stimulus

emotional conditioning

• type of memory involved in classical conditioned emotional responses

• these emotional relationships cannot be reported or even recalled, but can be associated with different stimuli

misinformation effect

creation of false memories due to misleading information provided after the event

false memories

recalling an event that did not actually happen or recalling an event differently from the way it happened

memory illusion

may never have happened, but was reported due to closely related things that happened

flashbulb memories

memories for important events might feel different than regular events (clearer, persistent, etc)

• can be used to “fill in the gaps”

• can be used to generate expectations for what is likely to be true in a situation

schema

organized knowledge structure used for understanding and remembering; kind of mental model'; framework

elaborative rehearsal

instead of passively learning an information, you think about the meaning of that information and its relation to other things that are already stored in your memory

mnemonic devices

memory aids that helps us organize information for encoding

spacing effect

the enhanced ability to remember information when encoding is distributed over time

encoding failure

memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins—happens because we do not pay attention to the information in the first place

proactive interference

when old information interferes with our ability to remember new information

retroactive interference

when new information interferes with our ability to remember old information

amnesia

the loss of memory due to brain damage or trauma

retrograde amnesia

forget the past (things that have already happened)

• uncommon type

• recovery of memory (if any) happens very slowly

anterograde amnesia

cant learn new things

• caused by damage to the hippocampus

• common type

transience

accessibility of memory decreases over time

absentmindedness

forgetting caused by lapses in attention

blocking

accessibility of information is temporarily blocked

misattribution

source of memory is confused

suggestibility

false memories due to others’ suggestions

bias

memories distorted by current belief system

persistence

inability to forget undesirable memories

bounded rationality

individuals act in a rational way—they consider the information available, evaluate the alternatives, and pick the optimal (best possible) option

bounded willpower

we don’t always do what we know is best

bounded self-interest

we consider outcomes for others, not just ourselves

bounded ethicality

we may not even be aware of ways we violate our own ethics

bounded awareness

we may fail to notice obvious information that is available

heuristics

mental shortcuts

• representativeness heuristic

• availability heuristic

system 1 thinking

thinking that is fast, intuitive, automatic, implicit, effortless, emotional

• turned off

• evaluate only one thing at a time, or simple relations like “alike”

system 2 thinking

thinking that is slow, deliberate, effortful, explicit, logical

• require attention

• able to to follow rules, switch “task sets”, compare options on multiple attributes, make deliberate choices

biases

ways our reasoning and decision-making tends to be systemically distorted; confirmation bias, overconfidence bias, anchoring and framing effects

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them

overconfidence effect

people tend to overestimate their ability

anchoring effects

when making estimates, an initial “anchor” is likely to influence the size of our estimate

framing

being influenced by the way information is presented (even when the information is the same)

representativeness heuristic

judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype, rather than considering the base rates (how common the characteristic is in the general population)

availability heuristic

when asked to judge how likely something is, instead you judge how easy it is to recall it

• not a good way of getting an accurate estimate of likelihood

definitions of intelligence

• abstract reasoning—the ability to understand hypothetical concepts rather than concepts in the here and now

• learning—the ability to aquire new knowledge

• adatping to new circumstances

• benefiting from experience

g (charles spearman)

general intelligence—hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect

s (charles spearman)

particular ability in a narrow domain

howard garner’s multiple intelligences

• linguistic: speak and write

• logico-mathematical: use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems

• spatial: think and reason about objects in 3D

• musical: perform, understand and enjoy music

• bodily-kinesthetic: manipulate the body in sports, dance, physical feats

• interpersonal: understand and interact effectively with others

• intrapersonal: have insight into oneself

• naturalistic: recognize, identify and understand plants, animals, living things

sternberg’s three intelligences

• practical: plan a party. manage a work team, change a tire, etc

• analytical: score well on standard IQ test, logical abilities, do well in school, etc

• creative: novel ideas, compose music, write poetry, invent things, etc

fluid intelligence

capacity to learn new ways of solving problems, to “think on your feet”

crystallized intelligence

ability to use accumulated knowledge of the world to solve problems

standardized intelligence tests

administeed in the way

normed intelligence tests

constructed so that results are normally distributed with a mean of 100

flynn effect

over time, the average score on intelligence tests has increased

eugenics

selective breeding of human populations to improve desired characteristics due to the belief that intelligence is a fixed heritable trait associated with sensory processing speed

wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)

most widely used modern intelligence test

• 15 subscales: digit span, vocabulary, comprehension, etc

• yields 5 scales: overall I.Q., verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed

growth mindset

believing abilities are changeable

fixed mindset

believing abilities are not changeable