Memory Processes, Systems, and Distortion Vocabulary

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, concepts, and definitions from the lecture notes on memory types, neurological mechanisms, retrieval, and distortions.

Encoding

The processing of information into a neural code that can be stored in the brain.

Storage

Retaining information for a period of time, which can last from a fraction of a second to a lifetime.

Retrieval

Accessing and using stored information when it is needed.

Retrieval failure

Occurs when you cannot access a memory when you want to, resulting in forgetting.

Primacy effect

The better memory people have for items presented at the beginning of a list.

Recency effect

The better memory people have for items presented at the end of a list.

Selective attention

The ability to direct mental resources to relevant information in order to process that information further while also ignoring irrelevant information.

Sensory memory

A memory store that very briefly holds information from the five senses, lasting about $\frac{1}{3}\,\text{second}$ for visual input and up to $4\,\text{seconds}$ for auditory input.

Short term memory

A memory store that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness, lasting less than $20\,\text{seconds}$ in the absence of rehearsal.

Memory span

The number of any kind of stimulus you can store in short term memory, designated by George Miller as $7 \pm 2$ chunks, with recent research suggesting a limit of $4$ items.

Chunking

The process of using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember and reduce memory load.

Long term memory

A memory store that allows relatively permanent retention for probably an unlimited amount of information.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to yourself to retain it in working memory, providing only shallow encoding.

Elaborative rehearsal

Using working memory processes to think about how new information relates to yourself or your prior knowledge, providing deeper encoding for long term memory.

Dual coding

Involves thinking about how information is both meaningful and in terms of mental images.

Schema

A mental framework used to organize knowledge about the world in long term memory.

Person schema

Our beliefs and assumptions about different people.

Stereotypes

Generalized schemas about whole groups of people.

Explicit memory

Conscious memories of facts and events, also referred to as declarative memory.

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory that consists of a person's personal experiences, including the time and place each experience occurred.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory that includes general factual memories with no personal context.

Flashbulb memories

Detailed and vivid memories about the circumstances in which you heard about surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing events.

Implicit memory

Also known as nondeclarative memory, a form of long term memory that holds unconscious memories expressed through behavior.

Classical conditioning

Implicit memory in which you develop a new conditioned response to a stimulus that was once neutral but has become a meaningful signal for an important event.

Procedural memory

Implicit memory for cognitive motor skills involving knowing how to do things really well as a result of practice.

Hebbian learning

A principle of synaptic communication during memory formation summarized as neurons that fire together wire together.

Long term potentiation

Enhanced activity that results from the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons, most easily observed in brain sites like the hippocampus.

Consolidation

A process whereby immediate memories become lasting memories when new neural connections are created and prior neural connections get stronger.

Reconsolidation

A process where activated memories need to be consolidated again for long term storage, during which retrieved memories can be changed or distorted by new information.

Retrograde amnesia

Losing the ability to access memories that were formed before experiencing a brain injury.

Anterograde amnesia

Losing the ability to form new memories after experiencing a brain injury.

Retrieval cues

Anything that helps a person access information in long term storage.

Context dependent memory

The phenomenon where being in the same context where learning took place provides environmental cues that aid access to that information.

Prospective memory

A type of memory used for remembering to perform an intentional act at an appropriate future time.

Mnemonics

Learning aids or strategies that use retrieval cues to improve access to memory.

Method of loci

A mnemonic strategy of associating items you want to remember with a physical location you already know.

Retroactive interference

A type of interference in recalling memories that occurs when newer memories prevent the recall of older memories.

Proactive interference

A type of interference in recalling memories that occurs when older memories prevent the recall of newer memories.

Blocking

Temporary inability to remember something due to retrieval failure, often resulting from interference.

Absentmindedness

The inattentive or shallow encoding of events caused primarily by failing to use selective attention to pay attention to relevant information.

Memory bias

The changing of memories over time so that they become more consistent with current beliefs or attitudes.

Misattribution

A memory distortion that occurs when we misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory.

Source amnesia

A form of misattribution that occurs when you have a memory for an event but cannot remember where you encountered the information.

Cryptomnesia

A form of misattribution where a person thinks they have come up with a new idea, but actually retrieved it from memory without attributing it to its proper source.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of memories for an event caused by misleading information and suggestion after witnessing the event.

False memories

The recall or recognition of events or information that did not happen or is not accurate.