ap psych all units

Attributions theory

explains how people decide whether someone’s behavior is due to their personality or situation

dispositional attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to their personality, not their situation

Situational attribution

assuming an individual's actions are caused by their situation, not their personality

Explanatory style

one's way of explaining life events; can be optimistic or pessimistic

Optimistic explanatory style

hopeful and confident about the future

Pessimistic explanatory style

seeing the worst side of things; no hope

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to blame a person’s actions on more their personality, and less on their situation

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

Internal locus of control

the belief that your actions & decisions directly influence the outcomes & events in your life

External locus of control

the belief that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate

Mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking of them

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are seen as better off; may motivate self improvement, & decrease self esteem

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are seen as worse off; can boost self-esteem, but may lead to complacency

relative deprivation

discontent felt when one compares themselves to others & feels like they are worse off

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people

prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

implicit attitudes

unconscious feelings or beliefs that can influence one’s behavior & perception

just-world phenomenon

belief that the world is fair & that people get what they deserve

Out-group Homogeneity bias

tendency to view members of an outgroup to be more alike than they really are

In-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within one’s own group over those from outside a group

Ethnocentrism

belief in the superiority of one's culture or ethnic group.

Belief perseverance

tendency to stick to one’s initial beliefs even after its been proven wrong

confirmation bias

the tendency to look for & interpret info that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs

cognitive dissonance

mental discomfort one feels when holding conflicting beliefs or acts against one; justification, changes in behavior

social norms

unwritten, shared rules that determine how one should act within a group

normative social influence

how individuals conform to the expectations of others in order to be liked for accepted

informational social influence

the influence to accept info from others as correct, often occurring in situations where the right action or belief if uncertain

Persuasion

influencing the beliefs & behaviors of others through communication

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

central route

method of persuasion involving deep engagement & careful analysis, leading to more durable attitude change

peripheral route

method of persuasion relying on superficial cues such as attractiveness or credibility of the speaker, leading to temporary attitude change

halo effect

tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements

Foot-in-the Door

phenomenon the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face technique

persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard; result of real or imagined group pressure

obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group/community over individual goals & desires

multiculturalism

valuing and respecting diverse cultural backgrounds, encouraging their coexistence within a society

group polarization

when a group adopts a more extreme opinion when discussing an idea

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides logical decision making

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel less responsibility for taking action or helping when others are present, believing that others will intervene

Social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone

deindividuation

a psychological state where people lose their self-awareness & sense of individuality in group settings, often leading to impulsive & deviant behavior

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others, or worse on new or complex tasks

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

superordinate goals

shared goals that require cooperation among individuals or groups, overriding smaller or individual conflicts

social traps

situations in which individuals or groups pursue immediate rewards that later prove to have negative or catastrophic consequences for the larger community

industrial-organizational psychologists

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

altruism

selfless regard for the welfare of others

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people should help others who need assistance, w/o wanting something in return

bystander effect

the phenomenon where a person is less likely to provide help when other people are present

Psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior Unconscious processes thoughts and feelings outside of our awareness

Ego-defense mechanism

unconscious strategies developed by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and perceived threats

Denial

ego defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

Displacement

ego defense mechanism where emotional impulses are redirected from the original source to a safer or more acceptable substitute target

Projection

ego defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Rationalization

defense mechanism where individuals justify and explain their behaviors or feelings in a seemingly rational manner to avoid confronting the true underlying reasons

Reaction formation

ego defense mechanism where individuals suppress unacceptable impulses by unconsciously displaying the opposite behavior or emotion

Regression

ego defense mechanism where an individual reverts to childlike behaviors when faced with stress or emotional conflict

Repression

defense mechanism where distressing thoughts & feelings are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness

Sublimation

ego defense mechaNism where negative urges & impulses are channeled into socially acceptable or constructive activities

Projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind to reveal the preconscious & unconscious mind

preconscious mind

contains thoughts & feelings that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily accessed when needed

unconscious mind

processes and memories that are beyond conscious awareness & significantly influence thoughts & behaviors

humanistic psychology

perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person & their uniqueness, focusing on self growth & unconditional positive regard for achieving potential

unconditional regard

Respecting and accepting an individual as they are

self-actualizing tendency

the human motive toward realizing our inner potential

social-cognitive theory

theory that emphasizes the influence of cognitive processes, behaviors, & context in understanding personality & human actions

reciprocal determinism

proposes that behavior, internal cognition, and environment influences each other interactively

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves; evaluation of their role in relation to others

self-efficacy

the belief in one's own sense of competence and effectiveness

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

Trait theories

suggests that personality is made up of traits that consistently influence how a person thinks & behaves

Big Five Theory

a trait theory that identifies five main characteristics of human personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Agreeableness

personality trait characterized by how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted one is

Openness

personality trait that encompasses an individual's imagination, curiosity, and willingness to engage with new experiences

extraversion

personality trait characterized by high levels or sociability, energy, assertiveness, & strong preference for social interaction & stimulation

Conscientiousness

personality trait marked by organization, dependability, discipline, & goal oriented approach to life

Emotional stability (Neuroticism)

personality trait referring to having consistent emotional reactions, resilience, & the ability to remain calm & composed under stress

Personality inventories

standardized tools used to asses & measure individual personality traits & characteristics through self-report questionnaires

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

drive-reduction theory

a theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis, aiming to restore balance

homeostasis

the body’s effort to maintain stable internal conditions

arousal theory

a theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness to enhance performance & well-being

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation proposing that people are motivated by intrinsic motivations, or extrinsic motivations

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for one’s own sake, driven by personal satisfaction or sense of accomplishment

incentive theory

a theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed by the desire for external rewards or incentives, which can include money, praise, or other tangible benefits

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to external rewards or pressures, such as money, grades, or praise

instincts

the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that are triggered by specific stimuli, driving them to act in predictable ways

Lewin's Motivational Conflicts Theory

describes the psychological struggles individuals face when making decisions

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two desirable options

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose an option that has both positive and negative aspects

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two undesirable options

sensation-seeking theory

proposes that one’s motivation is driven by the need for varied, novel, & intense experiences