PSY159 Midterm 1: Neuropsychology, Brain Systems, Memory & Attention

What is brain theory?

Brain theory is the principle that the brain produces behavior, explaining how thoughts, emotions, and behaviors arise from brain functions.

What are the two main parts of the nervous system?

The two main parts are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

What does the central nervous system consist of?

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.

What is the role of the somatic nervous system?

The somatic nervous system contains sensory and motor pathways to interact with external stimuli.

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

contains sensory pathways to interact with the internal world, such as regulating heart rate.

Who proposed the concept of mentalism?

Aristotle proposed the concept of mentalism, suggesting a nonphysical mind is responsible for thoughts and emotions.

What is dualism according to Descartes?

Dualism is the idea that a nonphysical mind influences the physical body, which operates like a machine.

What does materialism explain?

Materialism explains behavior through the workings of the nervous system and relates to evolution by natural selection.

What is phrenology?

Phrenology is the study that different functions can be localized to specific parts of the brain.

What is contralateral wiring?

Contralateral wiring refers to the fact that sensory and motor information from one side of the body is processed in the opposite hemisphere of the brain.

Which hemisphere is dominant for language?

The left hemisphere is the dominant language hemisphere, housing Broca's area and Wernicke's area.

What is Broca's aphasia?

Broca's aphasia is the loss of speech production due to damage in Broca's area.

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

Wernicke's aphasia is the loss of comprehension due to damage in Wernicke's area.

What is the corpus callosum?

the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

What are commissures in the brain?

Commissures are bundles of white matter that connect corresponding regions between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

What happened to H.M. after his surgery?

H.M. lost his long-term memory but retained his procedural memory and short term memory after having his temporal lobe removed.

What did Sperry's studies on split-brain patients reveal?

Sperry found that patients with damage to the corpus callosum could not send signals between the two hemispheres.

How has neurosurgery contributed to our understanding of the brain?

Neurosurgery has revealed behavioral changes following brain surgery, enhancing our knowledge of brain-behavior relationships.

What is the significance of psychometrics in neuropsychological testing?

uses statistical measures to describe behavioral variations and cognitive abilities across populations.

What imaging technique uses x-rays to visualize the brain?

Computed tomography (CT) scans use x-rays to produce images of the brain.

What does MRI stand for and what does it do?

MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, which produces detailed images of the brain using radio waves and magnetic fields.

What does a PET scan measure?

measures brain activity by tracking blood flow to active brain regions using radioactive tracers.

What is functional MRI (fMRI) used for?

show brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygen levels.

What is functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)?

fNIRS is a non-invasive method that uses near-infrared light to monitor and image brain activity.

What is the basic structure of a neuron?

A neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites for receiving signals, and an axon for transmitting signals.

How many neurons are approximately in the human brain?

The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons.

What are nuclei in the CNS?

groups of neurons

What is the soma in a neuron?

The soma contains cellular machinery.

What are dendrites?

Branching projections that collect information.

What is the function of an axon?

Carries information from the neuron to the target.

What role do glia play in the nervous system?

They provide support to neurons.

What are nuclei in the context of neurons?

Groups of neurons, also referred to as grey matter.

What are tracts in the nervous system?

Groups of axons, known as white matter.

What are sensory neurons responsible for?

Bringing information to the CNS.

What do interneurons do?

They associate sensory and motor activity in the CNS.

What is the function of motor neurons?

They send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles.

What are the three layers of the meninges?

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

What is the dura mater?

The tough outer covering of the CNS.

What is the function of the arachnoid mater?

It is a weblike structure that connects the inner and outer layers.

What is the pia mater?

The tough inner layer that adheres to the surface of the brain.

What is gray matter?

Contains cell bodies and capillaries, typically located on the outer part of the cortex.

What is white matter?

Myelinated axons that connect different parts of the brain, usually underneath the cortex.

What is reticular matter?

A netlike appearance that is a mix of gray and white matter, found in the brainstem.

What is the role of neurotransmitters?

They facilitate communication between neurons through electrical signals and chemical messengers.

What is the function of GABA?

Inhibits neural activity and regulates anxiety.

What happens when GABA activity is reduced?

Increased anxiety and greater risk of seizures.

What is the role of glutamate?

Excites neurons and is involved in learning and memory.

What are the effects of increased glutamate?

Potential neuron damage.

What is acetylcholine (ACh) involved in?

Muscle movement, learning, memory, and attention.

What happens when acetylcholine activity is increased?

Excessive muscle activation, cramps, and automatic effects.

What is the primary function of epinephrine?

It is involved in the fight or flight response.

What is the role of norepinephrine?

It regulates alertness, attention, and stress response.

What happens when serotonin levels are reduced?

Depressive symptoms may occur.

What is the function of dopamine?

Involved in motivation, smooth muscle movement, reward, and learning.

What are the four major lobes of the brain?

Frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.

What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?

Responsible for planning, decision making, problem solving, personality, emotions, and voluntary movements.

What separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?

The central sulcus.

What is the role of the spinal cord?

Carries sensory information from the PNS to the brain.

What does the brain stem regulate?

Automatic processes like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Coordinates timing and accuracy of movements.

What major landmark does the frontal lobe sit anterior to?

The central sulcus

What is the primary function of the primary motor cortex?

Fine motor movements, such as moving a finger

What types of movements does the premotor cortex coordinate?

Whole body movements, rhythmic movements, and skilled movements

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?

Generates plans for movements and passes them to the premotor and motor cortex

What are the three zones of the medial frontal cortex and their functions?

Posterior zone: motor functions; Middle: cognitive control; Anterior: reward, social processing, and episodic memory

What is the function of the anterior cingulate cortex?

Emotion (anterior), response selection and feedback-guided decision making (middle), visual spatial orientation (posterior)

What does the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex help control?

Limb and eye movements

What is the function of the orbitofrontal cortex?

Perceiving odors and tastes

What is the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex?

Linked with structures that influence emotional behavior

What is the default mode network associated with?

Self-reflection, mind wandering, autobiographical memory, and social awareness

What is executive control in the context of frontal lobe function?

The ability to plan and generate new actions in response to changing environmental demands

What are the major aspects of executive functioning?

Attentional control, planning, reasoning, working memory, problem solving, abstract thinking, self-monitoring

How is executive functioning lateralized in the frontal lobes?

Left frontal lobe is important for setting tasks; right frontal lobe monitors ongoing tasks

What are some symptoms of frontal-lobe lesions related to motor functioning?

Impaired voluntary movement, motor planning, and muscle control

What is the role of Broca's area in speech?

Important for forming words; damage can lead to speech difficulties

What is apraxia of speech?

Disruption in the coordination needed to move lips, tongue, and jaw due to brain damage

What is divergent thinking and how is it affected by frontal lobe damage?

Less spontaneous behavior and inability to generate responses without prompts

What tests can distinguish frontal lobe damage?

Verbal/design fluency, Stroop task, clock drawing test

What behavioral changes were observed in Phineas Gage after his accident?

He became irresponsible, impatient, and capricious

Which region was primarily affected in Phineas Gage's case?

Left frontal lobe, especially the left orbitofrontal cortex and ventromedial PFC

What is the difference between attention and consciousness?

Attention narrows awareness to specific stimuli; consciousness is awareness of awareness

What is bottom-up processing?

Automatic processing of environmental cues that stand out

What is top-down processing?

Voluntary focus guided by internal goals and expectations

What is multitasking and how does it affect attention?

Dividing attention between tasks; it is generally ineffective for complex tasks

Which brain region is involved in divided attention?

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

What is the role of the anterior cingulate cortex in attention?

Recognizes mismatches and guides response selection

What is the significance of the clock drawing test?

It assesses executive function, visuospatial ability, and attention

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in consciousness?

The prefrontal cortex is more involved in consciousness than attention.

What is nonconscious processing?

Information can be processed without deliberately focusing on it.

What are the main subdivisions of the temporal lobe?

The temporal lobe includes the neocortex, limbic cortex (amygdala & hippocampus), and olfactory cortex.

What major landmark is located dorsally to the temporal lobe?

The lateral fissure.

What is the primary function of the amygdala?

Involved in fear conditioning and influences the autonomic nervous system.

What does the hippocampus contribute to?

Memory formation and connects to various brain regions via specific pathways.

What are Ammon's horn and the dentate gyrus?

Ammon's horn contains pyramidal cells; the dentate gyrus contains sensory cells that undergo neurogenesis.

What is the fusiform gyrus responsible for?

Higher-level processing of visual information, including face and object recognition.

What does the superior temporal sulcus respond to?

Facial expressions.

What is the role of the corpus callosum?

Connects the neocortex of the left and right temporal lobes.

What is the ventral stream's function?

Projects information from the visual cortex in the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe, identifying objects.

What types of inputs does the temporal lobe process?

Sensory, affective, spatial, auditory, visual, olfactory, and facial information.

What is the difference between left and right temporal lobe processing?

one processes verbal information, one processes nonverbal information respectively