Sociology Concepts, Research Methods, and Cultural Foundations

Vocabulary flashcards covering core concepts, theorists, methodologies, and terminology from introductory sociology notes.

Sociology

The systematic study of society and social life through observing, asking questions, and using a scientific approach to propound theories across theoretical perspectives.

Sociological Perspective

An approach that studies human life and examines how society and individual backgrounds influence how people think, talk, and behave.

Peter Berger (1963)

American sociologist who defined sociology as being curious and interested in how people live together and interact with each other.

Sociological Imagination (SI)

Concept introduced by C. Wright Mills (1959) as the ability to connect personal experiences to larger social groups and contexts.

Positivism

An approach pioneered by Auguste Comte defined as studying society using observational facts, evidence, and scientific methods.

Structure and Agency

The interplay where society influences what people do (structure), while individuals retain the capacity to make choices and influence society (agency).

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Father of Sociology who introduced the term from Latin 'socius' and Greek 'logos', focusing on positivism, social order, and stability.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

Female sociologist who studied gender and inequalities.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Sociologist associated with Social Darwinism and the phrase 'survival of the fittest'.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Sociologist who studied social facts, social order, social solidarity, and functionalism.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Sociologist who focused on class conflict and argued that inequalities shape society.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Sociologist who studied social action and how people's beliefs influence society.

Georg Simmel (1858-1918)

Sociologist who studied social interactions, relationships, and how group size affects society.

Robert E. Parks (1864 - 1944)

Sociologist at Chicago who studied cities, immigration, race, and urban life.

George Herbert Mead (1863 - 1931)

Sociologist at Chicago who explained how the self develops through social interaction.

Jane Adams (1860 - 1935)

Sociologist at Chicago who worked on poverty, immigration, inequality, and social reform.

W.E.B Du Bois (1868 - 1963)

Sociologist at Atlanta who studied race, racism, and inequality.

Ida B. Wells - Barnett (1862 - 1931)

Sociologist at Atlanta who documented lynching and racial violence.

S. D Clark (1882 - 1980)

First chair of sociology in Toronto who studied Canadian society, communities, and social change.

John Porter (1921 - 1979)

Canadian sociologist who studied social class, inequality, and Canada's ethnic structure.

Social Darwinism

A theoretical concept associated with Herbert Spencer centered on the principle of 'survival of the fittest'.

Alienation

A condition in which workers feel disconnected from their work, producing items they cannot use or know.

Functionalist Perspective

Theoretical framework proposing that different parts of society work together as a system to maintain stability and order.

Conflict Perspective

Theoretical framework proposing that society is shaped by struggles and competition over power, resources, and money between different groups.

Feminist Perspective

Theoretical framework that examines gender inequality and the unequal power relations between men and women.

Symbolic Interaction Perspective

Theoretical framework focusing on how people create meaning through everyday interactions, language, and symbols.

Post-Structuralist Perspective

Theoretical framework asserting that knowledge, truth, and social meanings are shaped by language, culture, and power.

Altruism

The act of helping others without expecting anything in return.

Empiricism

Gaining knowledge through observation and evidence that is directly collected, systematic, public, and factual.

Descriptive Research

Research aimed at describing what is happening and detailing a social situation ('WHAT?').

Explanatory Research

Research aimed at explaining why or how something happens and analyzing the relationship between variables ('WHY/HOW?').

Deductive Approach

A research approach that starts with a theory and then collects data to test it ('theory first').

Inductive Approach

A research approach that starts with collecting data and identifying patterns to formulate a theory ('data first').

Conventional Research Model

Traditional scientific research model that mainly utilizes quantitative research to yield objective findings.

Hypothesis

A testable statement specifying the expected relationship between 2 or more variables.

Variable

Anything that can take on different values or characteristics across persons, time, situations, or societies.

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

The independent variable causes or influences a change, whereas the dependent variable represents the effect and depends on the independent variable.

Operational Definition

A definition explaining how an abstract concept will be observed or measured in a research study.

Reliability

The consistency of research results when repeating a measurement or test.

Validity

The accuracy of research in measuring what it specifically claims to measure.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or condition, serving as a benchmark for comparison.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the specific treatment or condition being studied.

Big Data

Very large amounts of data collected from sources such as social media, websites, mobile phones, and government records.

Participant Observation

A qualitative research technique where the researcher actively joins the group or activity while observing it.

Ethnography

An in-depth study of a culture or community, typically conducted through long-term observation.

Triangulation

The use of multiple methods to collect data and integrate various points of view.

Androcentric

A male-centered perspective or limitation in research methodology.

Culture

Knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects passed from one person to another and across generations.

Macro-level Society

Focuses on the big picture and shared culture of an entire society or larger group.

Micro-level Society

Focuses on individual people and their specific personal interactions.

Material Culture

Concrete, physical objects created by people, such as houses, pots, and flutes.

Nonmaterial Culture

Abstract ideas, ways of thinking, values, language, and behavioral norms within a society.

Cultural Universals

Concept by anthropologist George Murdock (1945) referring to common general activities and traits shared across human societies to satisfy basic needs.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Hypothesis stating that language influences human thoughts and shapes how individuals perceive reality.

Cultural Lag

Concept introduced by William Ogburn (1966) describing a scenario where material culture/technology changes faster than nonmaterial culture (values, norms, rules).

Ethnocentrism

Evaluating and judging other cultures based on the standard of one's own culture.

Cultural Relativism

Evaluating and understanding other cultures from their own internal perspectives and standards.

Subculture

A smaller cultural group existing within a larger dominant group.

Counterculture

A cultural group whose values and ideas are strongly opposed to those of the main dominant group.

Cultural Capital

Concept described by Pierre Bourdieu as knowledge and skills that grant individuals social advantages.