Principles of Wildlife Management Exam 2

What are the five principles of wildlife management?

1) Management decisions are informed by four key factors: biological, social, political, and economic

2) You can’t manage for all species simultaneously

3) Wildlife management is not just managing wildlife

4) Carrying capacity is complicated and is determined by the intersection of ecological, social, economic, and political factors

5) Scale matters

Why is it helpful to study populations?

To understand theoretical ecology, measure ecosystem health, monitor trends over time, and manage populations

What is natality?

Birth rate- the number of offspring produced in a given time period, per number of adults in the population

What is mortality?

Death rate- per capita number of animals in a population that die during a specified period of time

What is survival rate?

The number of survivors per number of individuals per year (s=1-m)

What is fecundity?

The number of eggs produced per female

What is fertility?

The percent of eggs that are fertile

What is production?

The actual number of offspring produced?

What is recruitment?

The number of new individuals that reach breeding age

What are the BIDE parameters?

N= (B+I) - (D+E)

What does lambda represent in population dynamics?

The finite rate of increase for a population/the proportional change in population size from one period to the next.

lambda > 1 = growing

lambda < 1 = declining

What factors inform birth rate?

Age at sexual maturity, length of gestation, clutch size, sex ratio, mating system, proportion of females that breed at each age, age-specific fecundity, nutritional condition

What are age-specific birth rates?

When the number of individuals produced in a given period depend on the number of females in each age class

What factors cause variation in death rates?

Natural longevity, dominance hierarchies, density-dependent mortality (cover, disease, starvation), and density-independent mortality (weather, accidents)

When might a population show unlimited growth?

Lack of predators, abundance of resources, rapid replication, short generations times, new areas of colonization without regulating factors

Geometric vs Continuous Growth

Geometric: population reproduces at discrete time intervals (finite reproduction)

Exponential: individuals reproduce continuously, generations can overlap

What factors limit population growth and how?

Welfare: food, water, cover —> decrease breeding rate, weaken defenses against decimating factors

Decimating: predators, hunting, starvation, disease/parasites, accidents —> directly causes mortality

What is population regulation?

Density-dependent changes to BIDE (fluctuations below K): food, predation, disease, territoriality, competition

What is population limitation?

Density-independent changes to BIDE (population grows until K, then stabilizes or crashes): weather and climate, natural disasters, human acitivies

Why is it important to consider age when modeling population dynamics?

Not all ages reproduce, and those that do may have varying levels of success. It’s also common for survival to varying among age classes.

How do we examine relationships between age class and survival?

Life tables and survivorship curves (we’re type 1)

What were the sentiments surrounding wildlife in Colonial America (1620-1776)?

Dualism: good vs bad animals based on how they impacted the economy and survival

Domination: biblical justification, wilderness seen as evil and needed to be subdued

Predator eradication: carnivores targeted with bounties and habitat destruction

Overexploitation: local extinctions

Failed conservation attempts: early attempts were too late or ineffective

Laws: bounties on predators, closed season on deer in RI, closed season on upland game in NY

What were the sentiments surrounding wildlife in Early America (1776-1880)?

Continued exploitation: wildlife either a resource or a threat

Westward expansion: resource depletion in the east, pattern of overuse spreads

Symbolic eradication: extermination of species tied to Manifest Destiny

Govt endorsement: advocated for the extermination of species

When was the “era of overkill”?

Early America-Gilded/Progressive Era

1850s-turn of the century

What defined the era of overkill?

Extinctions, markets that demanded more harvesting

What were the sentiments surrounding wildlife in the Gilded/Progressive Era (1870-1917)?

Shift towards conservation: led by urbanization and rise of professional science

Emergence of conservation organizations

Darwinian influence/biological understanding of wildlife

Rise of sport hunting: support for sustainable practices

Appreciation of nature

Acts: Yellowstone National Park, Boone & Crockett Club, Forest Reserve Act

When was the “era of protection”?

Turn of the century-1930

What acts defined the era of protection?

Lacey Act: permits for exotic species, cannot transport illegally killed game across state lines

Migratory Bird Treaty Act: closed hunting season, federal protections, international cooperation

First national wildlife refuge

PA issues first hunting license

What were the sentiments surrounding wildlife in the early 20th century?

Economic priority (Great Depression): focus on agriculture productivity over wildlife protection

Technological advancements in predator control (federally supported poisons)

Professionalism of wildlife management

What acts define the era of game management?

Duck Stamp Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, creation of the Wildlife Society, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (tax on hunting equipment goes to conservation)

What were the sentiments surrounding wildlife in Modern America (post-WWII to late 20th century)?

Wildlife boom/population rebound

Rise of outdoor recreation

Media influence: national awareness and emotional investment

Urban-wildlife conflict: property damage, collisions, disease

Polarization of society: urban vs rural, hunters vs anti-hunters, ecologists vs utilitarians

Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act: tax on fishing equipment goes towards conservation

What is the difference between historical conservation figureheads vs current conservation figureheads?

Leopold, Muir, Roosevelt, Darling: many great accomplishments; history of eugenics, colonization, and lack of appreciation for indigenous rights and culture.

Nilon, Finney, Lanham, Bullard: broader perspectives, addressing environmental racism/repressed voices

What are the sentiments surrounding wildlife now?

Continued habitat encroachment

Public health risks (zoonotic diseases, predator-human interactions)

Management complexity (diverse public attitudes, political activism)

Food vs wildlife tradeoffs

Adaptive management

NAM: wildlife as a public resource, central role of science, users as stakeholders

What is the Public Trust Doctrine?

Wildlife is not owned by individuals, but held in trust by governments for the benefit of present and future generations.

Governments are the trustees responsible for managing wildlife, the public are the beneficiaries with the right to access wildlife, decisions are made in the public interest (not private gain).

What is the first tenant of the NAM? Proposed changes?

Wildlife as a public trust resource: wildlife held in trust by governments for the benefit of present and future citizens

Change: wildlife cared for by the public

What is the second tenant of the NAM? Proposed changes?

Elimination of markets for wildlife: commercial hunting and sale on wildlife prohibited

Change: sustainable harvest and regulated sale of non-threatened species

What is the third tenant of the NAM?

Allocation of wildlife by law: wildlife managed through laws and regulations to ensure fair/equitable access/use

What is the fourth tenant of the NAM? Proposed changes?

Wildlife should only be killed for a legitimate purpose: only harvest for valid reasons (food, protection, etc.), and in accordance with the law

Change: respectful take of wildlife

What is the fifth tenant of the NAM? Proposed changes?

Wildlife is considered an international resource: conservation requires cooperation among nations to manage shared species effectively

Change: wildlife management is collaborative

What is the sixth tenant of the NAM? Proposed changes?

Science is the proper tool for discharge of wildlife policy: apply best-available science to guide management and policy

Change: wildlife policy based on tested knowledge

What is the seventh tenant of the NAM? Proposed changes?

Democracy of hunting: everyone has equal opportunity to participate in hunting

Change: democracy of access

What is missing from the NAM, and what is the proposed solution?

Missing: Indigenous knowledge

Solution: I-NAM, weaving knowledge-systems and leadership across political/cultural boundaries

What are some places where the NAM and I-NAM agree and diverge?

Agree: protect wildlife for future generations, no individual owns wildlife, utilize best available knowledge to solve problems, prioritize collaboration between nations, democratize the process of conserving wildlife

Diverge: Indigenous worldviews define wildlife and people as independent/connected/related components of a living system, NOT a resource

What are some shortcomings of the NAM?

Excludes nonconsumptive users from playing a more active role in management

Science is questioned, as most management plans lack clear monitoring objectives or processes associated with the scientific method

Selective implementation

Does not include Indigenous voices (colonial)

What are some steps we can take to Indigenize the NAM?

Reconciling knowledge systems and policies (co-management)

Abandoning colonially centric language and perspectives

Acknowledging historical displacement and reconciling it by delegating wildlife monitoring, tourism, and public relation ventures to Indigenous communities

Active listening, learning, and change (continuous)

What are the four wildlife value concepts?

Benefits: varying importance or preference for wildlife among individuals or groups

Economic expenditures: economic value of wildlife (purchasing preferences, dollars spent, willingness to pay)

Cultural standards: standards, ideals, expectations characterizing a group at specific point in time

Attitudes: refer broadly to integrated feelings, beliefs, and values

What defines the humanistic view of wildlife?

Strong personal affection for individual animals (typically pets)

What defines the moralistic view of wildlife?

Great concern for the welfare of all animals

What defines the utilitarian view of wildlife?

Perception of animals in terms of their practical or profitable qualities, largely for their material benefit towards humans (not necessarily a lack of affection, just not a priority)

What defines the dominionistic view of wildlife?

A sense of superiority and desire to master animals

What defines the naturalistic view of wildlife?

An interest in all animals, with a profound attraction to wildlife and the outdoors in general

What defines the aesthetic view of wildlife?

A central interest in the beauty or symbolic properties of animals

What defines the ecologistic view of wildlife?

Rather than focusing on individual animals, the major emphasis and affection is for species in their natural habitats. Primarily oriented toward wildlife and natural settings, but typically is more intellectual and detached.

What defines the scientistic view of wildlife?

An objective and intellectualized perspective of animals; physical objects of study

What defines the negativistic view of wildlife?

Active dislike or fear; desire to avoid animals

What defines the neutralistic view of wildlife?

Passive indifference; desire to avoid animals

What are some conflicts between the different views towards wildlife?

Moralistic vs utilitarian: human exploitation/hunting

Negativistic vs humanistic: affection for animals

Negativistic/utilitarian vs. ecologistic/naturalistic: wildlife conservation

Hard for agencies to maintain trust, remain relevant, secure funding

According to Manfredo, what was the multilevel value shift and what drove it in the United States?

Domination —> Mutualism

Benefit to humans —> Wildlife are part of one’s social network and are worthy of care/compassion

Drives: urbanization, increased economic well-being, education

What’s the difference between hunting and harvest?

Hunting: regulated sport/recreational hunting

Harvest: removal of animals or plants from a population, usually by humans

What are some reasons for harvesting?

Nutrition, economics, recreation, culture, management

What are some reasons for hunting specifically for management and their outcomes?

Sustainable hunting: r > 0, N = N

Reduce population: < r, < N

Eliminate population: < r, N = 0

What are some harvest principles?

Types of harvest regulations: basic rules established to ensure hunter safety and fair-chase

(ethical approach) —> legal methods of take —> regulations that govern bag limits, season length, and age, size, or sex restrictions

Density-dependent responses

Social expectations

What is the maximum sustainable yield?

Where the highest number of individuals can be sustainably harvested (K/2; the population peak or inflection point). Usually hovers around a moderate population size.

Is MSY really the best and safest level of harvest? Why?

No because of the logistic assumptions: carrying capacity is constant, interaction between N and K is instantaneous (no time lags), age structure does not affect growth rate, growth rate changes linearly with population size, no environmental stochasticity

What are some problems with using MSY as a harvest solution?

K is not constant, overharvesting if population is below the MSY density, requires accurate info about K to work

What should you do if you decide to use MSY as a harvest option?

Harvest rate should be kept well below MSY (25% margin of error), more so in highly variable ecosystems

What is additive mortality?

Mortality factor causes immediate reduction in total survival; adding death (typically density-independent)

What is compensatory mortality?

No reduction in total survival; trading death (typically density-dependent)

Also called numerical compensation: when some of the individuals harvested would have died anyway

What is density-dependent compensation?

Harvest mortality changes vital rates: increased juvenile or adult survival, increased reproductive output, increased immigration rates

What are integrated population models (IPMs)?

A formal statistical methodology for combining multiple data sets into a single, unified analysis with the dual objectives of better estimating population size/trajectory/vital rates and formally describing the ecological processes that generate these patterns. They provide a powerful platform for evaluating alternative hypotheses about population regulation, and they have the potential to advance understanding of wildlife ecology to help managers make ecologically based decisions.