USHA Midterm 1 Conceptual Flashcards

ALL TERMS

Iberians

Highly urbanized society living in fortified hill-top towns and lived in hierarchical society

• Sculpturework (ex: Lady of Elche)

• Integrated into Roman Hispania quickly b/c they rapidly Romanized

Celts

Rural, tribal peoples living in fortified villages and hillforts. Lived in tribes and warrior clans

• Made metalwork (ex: brooches)

• Stonework (ex: verracos)

• Were eventually integrated into Romanization after fierce resistance during Siege of Numantia

Proto-Basques

Semi-nomadic, mountainous, rural village peoples with kin-ship based clans and mountain tribes

• Strong oral/mythological traditions

• Partially Romanized but maintained language

Julio Martínez Santa-Olalla

The chief architect of early Francoist archaeology. Deeply influenced by German Falangism and Nazi Ahnenerbe racial theories, Santa-Olalla sought to find the "Aryan" and "Celtic" roots of Spain to prove that Spaniards were a biologically and culturally superior European race.

• Promoted the concept of homo-hispanicus, along with Pericot & Almagro Basch

Luis Pericot García

A prominent prehistorian who specialized in the Paleolithic era. Under the constraints of the post-war regime, he worked within the official state framework to structure the chronological timeline of Spanish prehistory, framing early Iberian populations as distinct, creative, and unified.

Martín Almagro Basch

A powerful academic who worked closely with Santa-Olalla and Pericot. Pushed a vision of proto-history that emphasized the "Celticization" and "Indo-Europeanization" of the peninsula, laying the racial and cultural foundation upon which Romanization would later build.

• established fundamental knowledge regarding the Copper Age site of Los Millares

Romanisation

The centuries-long cultural, linguistic, legal, and institutional process through which the diverse indigenous peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Celts, Celtiberians, Lusitanians, and Turdetani) were integrated into the political structure, social norms, and cultural world of the Roman Empire.

Arianism and Ulfilas

Gothic preacher Ulfilas converted Visigoths to Arian Christianity in the 4th century, and they were able to rule Hispania as an Arian elite from the 5th-6th century over the Catholic Hispano-Romans

• Caused the kingdom to be divided and the prohibition of intermarriage between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans

• King Reccarred ultimately converted to Catholicism and united the Kingdom in the Third Council of Toledo

• Reccarred = birth of single, unified, Catholic Spain

The Kingdom of Toledo

Realm in central Iberian peninsula created by Alfonso VI of Leon in 1085 (until 1833)

• Significant role in Reconquista→ military campaigns by Christian forces to reclaim control of Iberian peninsula from Muslim rule

• Located between Christian & Muslim Spain, governed by Castilian monarchy

Leovigild

Unified the Iberian peninsula under Visigothic rule

• Legal reforms that allowed for equal rights between Visigothic & Hispano-Roman populations

• The state he built endured until the Muslim conquests

King Reccared

Leader who converted Spain from Arian Christianity to Catholicism in order to unify the Visigothic Kingdom

• Led to political stability, suppressed dissent, and strengthened ties with Byzantine & Frankish empires

Liber iudiciorum

7th century Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania’s legal code under King Recceswinth, which unified Roman & Visigothic law into a single territorial system

• Written in Latin due to Roman influence

• aka The Book of Judgements or The Visigothic code

Francoist Gothicism

The reinterpretation of the Visigothic Kingdom and the Reconquista by the dictatorship under Francisco Franco (1939-1975), constructing a mythical, nationalist origin story of the modern Spanish state

• Franco legitimized his rule by glorifying centralism and promoting an essentialist, Catholic-centered definition of Spanish history

• Emphasized Recarred’s conversion to Catholicism under the Third Council of Toledo → key moment where Spanish nationality was fused with Catholicism

• Drew parallels between himself and Pelayo

• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) framed as a modern-day Reconquista against foreign, godless ideologies of communism, marxism, anti-catholicism

Sunni and Shia

• Al-andalus = majority Sunni

• Fatimid Caliphate of North Africa sought to subvert Sunni rulers across North Africa & Hispania

• Umayyad ruler Abd al-Rahman III declared himself Caliph of Cordoba and asserted equal ideological standing between Fatimid Shia

• Umayyad’s of Cordoba financed and armed Sunni Berber tribes in Morocco to create a defensive buffer zone against Fatimids

Umayyads

The ruling dynasty that conquered Iberia in 711 AD and, after being overthrown in the East, established an independent state centered in Córdoba (756–1031 AD). They transformed Al-Andalus into a sovereign, prosperous Sunni powerhouse and cultural hub that stood politically independent of eastern imperial rule

Abbasids

The rival dynasty in Baghdad that overthrew the Umayyads in 750 AD but failed to extend its authority into the Iberian Peninsula. Within Spanish history, they functioned primarily as a distant geopolitical foil—prompting the Umayyads of Córdoba to forge an independent realm and compete with Baghdad for cultural and religious authority

Emir

High-ranking leader or governor within a Muslim state (often in a Caliphate)

Caliph

Ultimate ruler in a Caliphate, holding both religious & political authority

The break of 756 and the claim of 929

The two defining political milestones that established, defended, and ultimately elevated Al-Andalus from a remote frontier province into a fully sovereign, world-power Caliphate.

Break of 756

Abd al-Rahman I seized control of Córdoba and proclaimed himself an independent Emir, marking the formal political break between Muslim Spain and the wider Islamic Empire ruled from Baghdad by the Abbasid dynasty.

• Al-Andalus ceased to be a mere provincial dependency governed by short-term appointed governors. Instead, it became a self-governing, centralized state capable of developing its own distinct Andalusi culture, legal institutions, and military strategy against the northern Christian kingdoms.

Claim of 929

Abd al-Rahman III escalated his title from "Emir" (governor/prince) to Caliph, officially establishing the Caliphate of Córdoba.

• An explicit claim to supreme spiritual, religious, and political leadership over the entire Islamic world, directly challenging both the Sunni Abbasids in Baghdad and the expanding Shia Fatimids in North Africa.

• Impact on Iberian History: The declaration inaugurated the Golden Age of Al-Andalus. It justified a massive expansion of centralized state bureaucracy, the construction of the imperial palace-city of Madinat al-Zahra, and a dominant projection of military power across both the Christian north and North Africa.

Kharaj

Land tax imposed on agricultural land and its produce

• Was significant under Umayyad and Abbasid periods, wherein non-Muslim subjects were soon taxed

Berber Revolt

The massive revolt across North Africa and al-Andalus

• Major uprising of Indigenous people of North Africa against Umayyad rule in North Africa, leading to the first successful secession from the Caliphate and the emergence of independent Berber states

• Were treated as second-class citizens and given the harshest military duties, leading to longstanding grievances

  • Were not treated better after converting to Islam

• Marked the first successful secession from the Arab Caliphate and represented one of the largest military setbacks for Caliph Hisham. It paved the way for the emergence of independent Muslim states outside the Caliphate

• This revolt ultimately ended unified Umayyad rule from the East; split Iberia into a Christian North (Asturias) and an independent Muslim South (Córdoba)

The Syrian junds

Following the outbreak of the Great Berber Revolt (740 AD) in North Africa, the Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik sent a 30,000-man elite Syrian army under Kulthum ibn Iyad to suppress the uprising

• The force was crushed by Berber rebels at the Battle of Bagdoura (741 AD) in modern Morocco. Around 10,000 surviving Syrian cavalry, led by Balj ibn Bishr, fled to Ceuta, where they were besieged and faced starvation.

• They introduced an elite, standing cavalry force that became the core military foundation of the early Independent Emirate created by Abd al-Rahman I in 756 AD

• Because they originated from the traditional heartland of the Umayyad dynasty, they provided crucial troop support when the surviving Umayyad prince, Abd al-Rahman I, landed in Spain to break away from the Abbasids.

Qays—Yemen Rivalry

An ancient tribal feud between two major Arab factions that was imported into Al-Andalus during the 8th century, severely destabilizing the early Islamic state

• The feud originated in pre-Islamic tribal competition over resources in Syria

• The arrival of the Syrian junds in 742 AD exacerbated these rivalries. The Syrian units were themselves split into Qaysite and Yamanite divisions, plunging Al-Andalus into a series of bloody internal conflicts that paralyzed the state for over a decade.

• Arab tribal factionalism threatened state survival, so early Umayyad emirs gradually restructured the military, replacing volatile tribal levies with Berbers, Slavs/Saqaliba, and Christian guards to neutralize the political influence of Qays & Yemen.

Muladi

Indigenous population of Iberian peninsula who adopted Islam after Muslim conquest of Iberian peninsula in early 8th century

Martyrs of Cordoba

During the 850s, a movement arose in Córdoba where a group of nearly 50 Mozarabic Christians publicly criticized Islam or committed blasphemy, leading to their execution by Islamic authorities.

• Alvarus of Cordoba strongly defended the martyrs, framing their actions as a necessary defense of Christian identity against religious and cultural absorption

Alvarus of Cordoba

Intellectual & religious Mozarabic figure of 9th century al-Andalus

• One of the primary voices who documented the cultural & religious friction between the native Christian population and the ruling Arab-Islamic elite under the Emirate of Cordoba

• IMPORTANT: Penned one of the most famous medieval complaints regarding cultural assimilation. He lamented that young Christian intellectuals in Córdoba were mastering Arabic literature and poetry while forgetting traditional ecclesiastical Latin

Ibn Hafsun

Muladi (Iberian Christian who converted to Islam) leader who led the largest internal revolt against the Emirate of Cordoba

• Openly converted to Christianity and changed name to Samuel to gain support of Christian rulers (Asturias, Byzantines)

• Brought the Emirate of Córdoba to the brink of total collapse.

• His eventual defeat by Abd al-Rahman III was the crucial step that allowed Abd al-Rahman III to pacify Al-Andalus and proclaim the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929 AD.

Madinat al-Zahra

Fortified palace-city built in the 10th century by Abd al-Rahman III, the first caliph of al-Andalus

• Served as capital of Caliphate of Cordoba

• Known for its architectural achievement, decoration, and urbanism

al-Mansur

Military general who seized absolute de facto control over the Caliphate of Córdoba and who legitimized his rule by positioning himself as the ultimate defender of Islam against the Christian north

• Conducted over 50 victorious military campaigns against the northern Christian kingdoms. His most famous raids included the sacking of Santiago de Compostela (997 AD), where he forced Christian captives to carry the cathedral's bells back to Córdoba on their shoulders

• Shortly after his death (1002 AD) and that of his son, the Caliphate plunged into civil war (fitna), leading to its dissolution into the Taifa kingdoms in 1031 AD.

Fitna of 1009–1031

Civil war that marked the end of the Caliphate of Cordoba and the beginning of fragmented Muslim ruling of the Iberian peninsula

• Led to division of al-Andalus into series of Taifa kingdoms

Parias

Form of tribute paid by the Taifa kingdoms of al-Andalus to Christian Kingdoms of medieval Spain, acting as protection payments that recognized the superior military status of Christian rulers

• Coercive in nature

• Generally paid in gold coin (Islamic dinars or mithqals) and accompanied by gifts

Almoravids and Almohads

Two successive Islamic dynasties originating from North Africa that ruled al-Andalus from the 11th-13th centuries, as well as halted the expansion on of Christian kingdoms

Both helped make al-Andalus more independent, highly-refined, Iberian-Islamic societies through religious authority and strengthening governance

Almoravids

(1086-1147): Berber nomads from the Sahara who were invited by the Taifa kings after fall of Toledo

Almohads

(1147-1212/1238): Berbers from High Atlas mountains who invaded after the collapse of the Almoravid state to stop Christian gains

Battle of Covadonga

Battle where Pelayo’s forces and a punitive Umayyad expedition battled → Pelayo won

• Said in Christian chronicles to be a battle aided by the Virgin Mary

• First successful Christian resistance against Islamic expansion in the Iberian peninsula

Pelayo

Member of the King Roderic’s royal bodyguard who fled after the Umayyad conquest to the mountains of Asturias, where he was elected leader by the Asturian tribes and refugee Visigoths

• Became first monarch of the Kingdom of Asturias (718-737AD)

• He rejected Muslim authority and refused to pay tribute (jizya)

Kingdom of Asturias

Founded after the Battle of Covadonga and was established as the initial sanctuary for Christian resistance in northern Iberia

• Monarchs of this Kingdom claimed that it was the legitimate successor to the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo → NEOGOTHICISM

  • _____ Chronicles

Neo-Gothicism

Political and ideological concept (popular in the Middle Ages) of tracing legitimacy, culture, and continuity of Christian kingdoms of Northern Spain back to the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo

• Northern Christian realms (such as Asturias, Leon, & Castile) claimed to be heirs to the Visigothic Kingdom

• Framed Christian conquests as liberating and restoring lost Gothic heritage

  • Shown in Asturian Chronicles!

Leon, Castile, Navarre, Aragon, the Catalan counties

Principal Christian realms of northern Iberian peninsula during the Middle Ages who drove the territorial expansion of Reconquista → led to foundations of modern Spain & Portugal

Santiago de Compostela and the pilgrim road frontier settlement and property

The discovery of the alleged tomb of St. James the Apostle in Galicia (c. 814 AD) turned Santiago de Compostela into a cornerstone of medieval European pilgrimage. The route leading to it, the Camino de Santiago. became a major driver of demographic expansion, frontier settlement (repoblación), and land distribution across northern Christian Iberia.

• Small defensive outposts and villages along the path grew into bustling urban centers (e.g., Jaca, Pamplona, Logroño, Burgos, Sahagún, and León).

• Monarchs used the pilgrimage road to populate vulnerable borderlands recovered from Muslim rule. Kings granted generous town charters (fueros) to attract settlers along the route, offering tax immunities, personal freedoms, legal protection, and rights to hold weekly markets.

• The Camino broke the geopolitical isolation of the northern Iberian kingdoms, connecting them with French, Germanic, and Papal networks.

• Santiago evolved into Santiago Matamoros, giving the northern kingdoms a unifying ideological and spiritual symbol that justified territorial conquest and frontier expansion southward.

Arianism

A Christian doctrine declared heretical at the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), holding that Jesus Christ was created by and subordinate to God the Father. Adhered to by Visigoths until 589 AD.

Caudillismo

Rule by charismatic military leaders or dictators; heavily emphasized in Francoist political ideology.

Dhimmi

Non-Muslim subjects (Jews and Christians) living in an Islamic state with protected legal status in exchange for loyalty and specific taxes.

Fitna

Arabic term for internal strife, schism, or civil war within the Islamic community.

Jizyah & Kharaj

Taxes paid by Dhimmis in Al-Andalus

• Jizyah was a personal poll tax

• Kharaj was a land tax.

Morbus Gothorum: ("The Gothic Sickness")

The historical tendency within the Visigothic monarchy toward political instability, regicide, and violent succession disputes.

Mozarab

A Hispano-Roman Christian living under Muslim rule in Al-Andalus who adopted Arabic language and cultural customs while retaining Christian faith.

Mawali

Non-Arab converts to Islam who were historically treated as second-class citizens compared to Arab Muslims during the Umayyad era.

Plurinational State

A state composed of multiple distinct national identities or cultural groups coexisting under a single sovereign government.

Saqaliba

Slavic and Northern European slaves brought to Al-Andalus, frequently serving as elite military guards, palace administrators, and concubines.

Taifa

Independent, competing petty Muslim principalities that emerged following the fragmentation of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031 AD.

Nation

An "imagined political community — imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign" (Benedict Anderson)

Nation-State

A sovereign political entity where state boundaries coincide with a shared national identity.

Enlightenment

Universal reason, suspicion of unexamined tradition and local custom.

Romanticism

Valorizes the specific, historical past, local folklore, and unique cultural identity.

Paleolithic Era

Hunter-gatherer communities using knapped stone tools.

• Artistic Landmark: Altamira Caves (Cantabria) — polychrome cave paintings depicting bison, deer, and horses.

Neolithic Era

Emergence of agriculture, animal domestication, pottery, and permanent settlements

• Artistic Landmarks: Cogul Dancers (Lleida, Catalonia) showing dynamic human figures; schematic/macroschematic art in Valencia.

Los Millares (3200–2200 BC)

Copper Age fortified settlement in Almería; tiered architecture, monumental walls, eye-decorated pottery (cerámica oculada).

El Argar (2200–1500 BC)

Bronze Age culture exhibiting clear socio-economic stratification and early state-like features. Grave goods reveal a strict caste system (rulers with swords/gold vs. artisans vs. unprovided graves/laborers).

Social Hierarchy in Al-Andalus

1) Muslim Elite, 2) Berbers, 3) Muladís, 4) Dhimmis, 5) Saqaliba