Psychopathology Exam 2

Agoraphobia

an anxiety disorder causing an intense fear of being in places or situations where escape may be hard or help may not be available if the person starts panicking

Amygdala

Neurons located in the temporal lobes that process emotions, fear responses, and emotional memories

Anxiety disorder

Specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder

Anxiety sensitivity

the intense fear of anxiety-related bodily sensations; such as the belief that a racing heart is a heart attack, dizziness is a stroke or brain tumor (health-related anxiety), mental incapacitation fears (interpreting trembling, confusion or brain fog as going crazy or losing control), social fears (worrying that sweating or shaking is obvious to others and will lead to humiliation)

Autonomic nervous system

a part of the peripheral nervous system that automatically controls unconscious body functions like heart rate, digestion, and blood pressure

Behavioral inhibition

an early-emerging childhood temperament trait marked by a tendency to experience distress, exercise high vigilance, and withdraw when unfamiliar people or objects

Depersonalization

a dissociative experience where you feel detached from your own body, mind, or actions, often like you are watching yourself from outside yourself

Derealization

a dissociative experience where the external world feels unreal, dreamlike, distant, or distorted, while your awareness of reality remains intact

Emotional processing (in exposure)

the modification of fear and memory structures in the brain when a person safely confronts a feared memory, object, or situation

Exposure hierarchy

a step-by-step list of anxiety-provoking situations, objects, or thoughts ranked from least difficult to most difficult.

Exposure therapy

a psychological treatment that safely exposes people to things they fear and avoid to help them break cycles of anxiety

Extinction

the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned behavior.

Fear circuit

the amygdala (threat detection), prefrontal cortex (evaluate whether a threat is real or not, sends signals to calm down the amygdala), hippocampus (handles contextual memory), and thalamus (sends environmental data to the amygdala for fast reactions).

Generalized anxiety disorder

a mental health condition characterized by persistent, excessive, and uncontrollable worry about everyday things like health, money, family, or work

Habituation

a psychological and biological process in which an organism's decreased response or reaction occurs after repeated or prolonged exposure to a non-threatening, inconsequential stimulus

Hippocampus

It turns short-term memories into long-term memories and helps retrieve them.

It acts as an internal GPS or cognitive map, helping you process spatial relationships and navigate your environment.

It links emotional responses and sensory details (such as smells or sights) to memories.

HPA axis

a primary neuroendocrine system in the body that controls the stress response and regulates other essential processes like digestion, immune function, mood, and energy storage

Interoceptive sensitivity

the objective accuracy and ability with which a person detects, monitors, and measures internal bodily signals

Panic attacks (expected/cued vs. unexpected/uncued)

occur in response to a known, specific trigger, stressor, or anticipated situation. Panic attacks themselves cannot be diagnosed.

Panic disorder

a type of anxiety disorder defined by recurring, unexpected panic attacks paired with a persistent fear of future attacks

Parasthesias

an abnormal skin sensation—such as tingling, burning, prickling, or a "pins-and-needles" feeling—that occurs without an outside physical trigger

Parasympathetic division

a major part of the autonomic nervous system that manages the body's "rest and digest" response. It balances the "fight or flight" action of the sympathetic division by slowing down activity and saving energy when the body is calm.

Phobia

an intense, persistent, and irrational fear of a specific object, animal, activity, or situation that poses little or no actual danger

Prefrontal cortex

front-most region of the brain's frontal lobe, located right behind the forehead. It acts as the brain's "control center" for higher-level thinking, personality expression, and complex behavior.

Self-efficacy

an individual's belief in their own capability to execute the actions and behaviors required to succeed in a specific task or situation

Social anxiety disorder

a chronic mental health condition marked by an intense, ongoing fear of being watched, judged, rejected, or humiliated by others

Specific phobia

an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense, irrational, and persistent fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that poses little or no actual danger

Sympathetic division

a primary branch of the autonomic nervous system that controls the body's automatic "fight-or-flight" response during stress, danger, or high physical activity.

Bipolar

a mental health condition that causes extreme, shifting moods between emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression).

Bipolar I disorder

a mental health condition defined by the occurrence of at least one full manic episode

Bipolar II disorder

a lifelong mental health condition defined by a pattern of recurring hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes

Cyclothymia

a chronic, milder form of bipolar disorder marked by frequent, unpredictable swings between emotional highs (hypomania) and emotional lows (mild or moderate depression)

Depression

a common and serious mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness, emptiness, or a loss of interest in activities you once enjoyed, lasting most of the day for at least two weeks

Distractibility

the rapid loss of focus and the shifting of attention away from a primary task, caused by competing external or internal stimuli

Dysthymia

persistent depressive disorder (PDD), is a chronic, low-grade form of depression that lasts for at least two years in adults (or one year in children and adolescents)

Elevated mood

a heightened state of emotional well-being characterized by persistent feelings of euphoria, elation, enthusiasm, and high energy that go beyond a normal, everyday sense of happiness

Esketamine

works by blocking NMDA receptors in the brain and increasing levels of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps rebuild damaged brain cell connections and restore neuroplasticity

Euthymia

a normal, balanced, and tranquil mood state where a person is neither depressed nor manic/hypomanic

Flight of ideas

a rapid speech and thought pattern where a person jumps abruptly from one topic to another through loose, superficial connections like rhymes, puns, or environmental cues

Grandiosity

an unrealistic sense of superiority, uniqueness, or invulnerability that is not based on actual personal capabilities or facts

Hypersomnia

a sleep disorder defined by an inability to stay awake and alert during the day, leading to excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) or prolonged nighttime sleep despite having an adequate or even excessive amount of sleep at night

Hypomania

a psychiatric condition marked by a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, paired with increased energy and activity levels. It is a milder and shorter form of a manic episode

Ketamine

a dissociative anesthetic that blocks NMDA receptors in the brain and alters glutamate signaling.

Major depressive disorder

a persistent feeling of sadness, emptiness, or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all daily activities lasting for at least two weeks

Mania

a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, accompanied by drastically increased energy and activity levels

Marked impairment

a serious, ongoing limitation in a person's ability to function independently, appropriately, and effectively in major life areas

Mixed episode/features

a mental health state where symptoms of mania or hypomania and depression happen at the same time or rapidly overlap

Mood

a disposition to respond emotionally in a particular way that may last for hours, days, or even weeks, perhaps at a low level and without the person knowing what prompted the state

Mood episode

a distinct period of time in which a person experiences a clear, persistent change in their emotional state and energy level that significantly differs from their usual baseline

Persistent depressive disorder

(FKA dysthymia) a chronic, long-term mood disorder characterized by a continuous low, sad, or irritable mood that lasts for at least 2 years in adults (or 1 year in children and adolescents)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

a severe, chronic form of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) classified in the DSM-5 as a depressive/mood disorder. It causes debilitating emotional, behavioral, and physical symptoms that cycle with the menstrual phase

Pressured speech

a clinical symptom characterized by rapid, frenetic, unrelenting, and often loud speech that lacks natural conversational pauses and imparts a strong sense of internal urgency

Psychomotor agitation

a feeling of intense inner tension and restlessness that causes a person to make rapid, unintended, and repetitive physical movements

Psychomotor retardation

a visible, clinical slowing down of both physical movements and cognitive (thought) processes. It is not a standalone illness, but rather an observable symptom often linked to psychiatric and medical conditions

Psychosis

a psychological and medical state where a person loses touch with reality, making it hard to tell what is real from what is unreal. It is not a standalone mental illness, but a collection of symptoms or a feature of various conditions

Sadness

a universal, basic emotional state characterized by feelings of disadvantage, loss, grief, helplessness, disappointment, and sorrow

Unequivocal change

a clear, unmistakable, and undeniable departure from an individual's baseline behavior, mood, or cognitive functioning

Unipolar

a mood disorder characterized by persistent, low moods and a lack of interest or pleasure in activities without any history of manic or hypomanic episodes

Basal ganglia

a group of deep subcortical brain structures that control movement, emotion, motivation, and learning

Body dysmorphic disorder

An overwhelming, obsessive focus on a perceived physical defect or minor flaw in appearance that is either unobservable or appears only slight to other people

Mirror checking or avoidance, skin picking, camoflauging with clothing or makeup, seeking reassurance.

Caudate nucleus

critical for linking thoughts, motivations, and emotions to physical and cognitive action

Cingulate gyrus

Coordinates emotional responses, affective states, and visceral reactions (such as changes in heart rate or blood pressure)

Compulsion

a repetitive, purposeful physical or mental action that a person feels driven or forced to perform, even though they recognize it is irrational, conflicts with their goals, or causes distress

Cortio-striatal-thalamo-cortical circuit

connects the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and thalamus in a closed-loop system

Disconfirmatory bias

a motivated reasoning tendency where individuals actively scrutinize, criticize, and demand a higher standard of proof for evidence that contradicts their existing beliefs

Excoriation

skin-picking or dermatillomania. Recurrent skin picking resulting in skin lesions

Repeated attempts to decrease or stop skin picking. The skin picking causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning 

Exposure and response prevention (EXRP)

the “gold star” treatment for OCD 

The obsessive thought happens, then anxiety comes, but the person is NOT allowed to engage in compulsive disorder.

Hoarding disorder

a distinct mental health condition characterized by a persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions—regardless of their actual monetary or functional value—driven by a perceived need to save items and distress associated with getting rid of them

Intolerance of anxiety

a psychological trait that describes a person's tendency to react negatively on an emotional, cognitive, and behavioral level to situations and events that are ambiguous or lack complete information

Negative appraisal

a subjective, pessimistic interpretation or evaluation of an event, internal state, or oneself as harmful, threatening, or damaging

Negative emotionality

a fundamental personality and temperament trait marked by a general tendency to experience a broad range of unpleasant moods and distress, such as anxiety, fear, sadness, anger, guilt, and irritability

Obsession

a recurrent, persistent, intrusive, and unwanted thought, urge, or image that causes significant anxiety or distress

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

a long-lasting mental health condition characterized by a cycle of unwanted, intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors

Agression/harm, contamination, sexual, religiosity, scrupulosity, need for symmetry/exactness, somatic.

Orbitofrontal cortex

a region of the prefrontal cortex located at the very front of the brain, directly above the eye sockets (orbits). In psychology and neuroscience, it is essential for value-based decision-making, emotion regulation, reward processing, and social-behavioral control. 

Orbitofrontal-caudate circuit

a neural pathway that links the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) to the caudate nucleus (part of the basal ganglia). In psychology and neuropsychiatry, this frontostriatal loop is defined by its critical role in evaluating rewards, regulating social and emotional behavior, and managing cognitive flexibility

Orbitofrontal-striatum circuit

connects the orbitofrontal cortex to subcortical structures like the basal ganglia and thalamus to integrate emotion, reward processing, and behavioral control

Pediatric Autoimmune

most notably PANDAS —refer to medical conditions where a misdirected immune response causes sudden, severe psychiatric and neurological symptoms in children

Neuropsychiatric Disorders

when physical changes, injuries, or chemical imbalances in the brain result in psychological or cognitive symptoms

depression, bipolar, GAD, OCD, schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder, alzheimer’s, parkinson’s

Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS)

a condition where children experience a dramatic, sudden onset or worsening of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or tic disorders shortly after a Group A streptococcal infection (such as strep throat or scarlet fever)

Response prevention

a specialized form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and the gold-standard psychological treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety disorders, phobias, and eating disorders

Thought fusion

a person believes that having an intrusive or bizarre thought is the same as carrying out the action, or that thinking about something makes it more likely to happen

Trichotillomania

Hair pulling often serves as an emotional regulation tool. People experience rising internal tension or anxiety, and the physical act of pulling provides temporary relief, gratification, or stress reduction (negative reinforcement

Acute stress disorder

a psychological condition that develops within 3 days to 1 month after a person is exposed to a traumatic event

Adjustment disorder

a stress-related mental health condition triggered by an identifiable life change, challenge, or trauma

Avoidance

any action, behavior, or cognitive strategy used to withdraw from, postpone, or minimize contact with distressing, uncomfortable, or threatening thoughts, feelings, memories, or situations

Equifinality

different individuals or systems can reach the exact same end state or outcome starting from completely different initial conditions or via diverse paths

Exaggerated startle response

an intense, involuntary physical and emotional reaction to a sudden or unexpected stimulus (such as a loud noise, a flash of light, or a unexpected touch) that is disproportionate to the actual threat

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)

an evidence-based psychotherapy designed to help people heal from the emotional distress and symptoms caused by traumatic life experiences

Hypervigilance

a state of heightened arousal and constant environmental scanning where the nervous system remains stuck in a default "fight-or-flight" mode

Intrusion symptoms

unwanted, involuntary, and distressing thoughts, memories, images, or sensory impressions that break into a person's conscious awareness

Multifinality

similar starting conditions, risk factors, or initial experiences can lead to very different outcomes

Overgeneralization of fear

a psychological and clinical phenomenon where an individual transfers a fear response from a specific, genuine threat-related stimulus (a conditioned danger cue) to similar but harmless or neutral cues

Prazosin

an alpha-1 adrenergic receptor antagonist (or alpha-blocker) that is primarily used off-label to treat trauma-related nightmares and sleep disturbances, most notably in patients with PTSD

PTSD

a psychiatric and mental health condition that develops after a person experiences, witnesses, or learns about a life-threatening or deeply traumatic event

Resilience

the process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences, particularly through mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility

Sensitized ANS and HPA

a state where the body's primary stress-response systems have become chronically hyper-reactive due to prolonged stress or past trauma

Stress

a process in which an individual perceives and responds to environmental demands or threats that strain or exceed their adaptive coping resources

Stressor

any internal or external event, condition, demand, or environmental stimulus that an individual perceives as a challenge or threat, which triggers a psychological and physiological stress response

Trauma

an emotional and psychological response to an event or series of events that overwhelms a person's ability to cope, causing intense fear, helplessness, dissociation, or confusion, and leaving long-lasting negative effects on functioning and well-being

Traumatic event

a shocking, dangerous, or life-threatening experience that overwhelms an individual's ability to cope and challenges their sense of safety and predictability