Psychology sexual orientation exam 2

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s theory that humans go through psychosexual stages. In each stage, libido focuses on a different erogenous zone, and specific needs must be met for healthy development. If needs aren’t met, a fixation may develop

Sigmund Freud

Believed homosexuality and gender identity could result from unresolved conflict in the Phallic Stage. He believed everyone is born bisexual and sexuality develops after this stage. He did not view homosexuality as a crime or illness.

Sexual Segregation / Heterosexual Frustration

Theories claiming that a strong sex drive, especially in men, leads people to seek same-sex relationships when opposite-sex options are limited.

Sex-Role Orientated Theory

The theory says inappropriate masculinity training can confuse gender and attraction. It assumes low masculinity equals homosexuality, applies only to males, and lacks research support.

Recruitment

The belief that homosexuals recruit others, especially children, to become homosexual. This idea has been used to support anti-LGBTQIA+ laws.

Religion

The belief that homosexuality results from supernatural influences, such as demonic possession. There is no research supporting this theory or showing that methods like exorcism can change sexual orientation.

Postpubertal Hormonal Theory

The theory says sexuality develops at puberty and testosterone influences sexual orientation. Animal studies have tested this by changing testosterone levels. The theory is not supported by research.

Pedigree Studies

Researchers study family trees for behavioral, attitudinal, or biological patterns. Findings suggest a possible genetic influence on sexual orientation, especially through maternal inheritance.

Twin Studies

Studies compare MZ and DZ twins. MZ twins have identical DNA, while DZ twins are genetically like siblings. Comparing their concordance rates helps determine whether a trait is influenced more by genetics or environment.

Monozygotic Twins (MZ)

Twins from one fertilized egg that splits; they have identical DNA.

Dizygotic twins (DZ)

Twins from two fertilized eggs; their DNA is as similar as any siblings.

Concordance Rates

The degree to which two twins (DZ) or (MZ) are similar in a trait. EX. If eye color is fully genetic, MZ twins = 100% concordance; DZ twins ≈ 50%.

Birth Order Effects

Having more older brothers is linked to a higher likelihood of a boy being gay. Research suggests this may be related to a maternal immune response to a protein called Neuroligin 4 Y-linked (NLGN4Y); immune responses may influence sexual orientation, particularly in men

Zygote

A fertilized egg formed when a sperm joins an egg. It has 23 chromosomes from the egg and 23 from the sperm (46 total). Typically, XX = female and XY = male.

Embyro

The developing organism after the zygote stage and before the fetus stage. During development, genes, hormones, and enzymes help influence the development of the external genitalia and sexual differentiation of the brain.

Wolffian Duct

A structure in the developing embryo that can develop into male reproductive structures when testosterone is present. Without testosterone, the Wolffian duct normally regresses.

Mullerian Duct

A structure in the developing embryo that develops into the uterus, cervix, and upper vagina. Without Müllerian-inhibiting factor, it normally develops as part of the female reproductive system.

X Chromosome

A sex chromosome typically found in both females and males. An egg always carries an X chromosome, while sperm can carry either X or Y

Y Chromosome

A sex chromosome that carries the testis-determining factor (TDF) gene. The TDF gene starts the development of the testes, which produce hormones that promote masculinization and stop the Müllerian duct from developing.

External Sexual Differentiation

The process by which the external genitalia develop. The genital tubercle becomes either a clitoris or penis, while the urethral folds become the labia in females or fuse to form the penis in males.

Brain Sexual Differentiation

The process by which the brain develops sex-related differences during fetal development. It is influenced by genetics and hormones.

Blood-Brain Barrier

Blocks estradiol from directly affecting the brain, while testosterone can cross and influence brain development.

Intersex

A person born with sex characteristics (such as chromosomes, hormones, or internal/external reproductive organs) that don’t fit typical male or female patterns. Intersex traits do not determine a person’s gender identity or sexual orientation.

5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency

A condition where the body has difficulty converting testosterone into DHT, which is needed for typical masculinization of the external genitalia. People with XY chromosomes may have female-appearing external genitalia at birth, but increased testosterone during puberty can cause the genitalia to become more masculinized.

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

A powerful androgen made when the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase converts testosterone into DHT. DHT plays an important role in the masculinization of external genitalia.

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

A condition where a person with XY chromosomes has cells that cannot properly respond to testosterone because the testosterone receptors are absent or not functioning normally. This can result in female or ambiguous external genitalia, and most individuals with AIS have a female gender identity.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

A condition in people with XX chromosomes that can cause the body to produce too much testosterone. This can lead to more masculinized external genitalia and more typically masculine behaviors, while many individuals still identify as female.

Klinefelter Syndrome

A condition where a person has an extra X chromosome (XXY). They typically develop male genitalia but may be taller and develop more feminized traits at puberty, such as less muscle, wider hips, and increased breast tissue.

Hormone Replacement Therapy

Treatment that uses hormones to change or replace hormone levels in the body. In the context of sexual development, HRT can provide hormones such as estrogen or testosterone to produce physical changes.

Top Surgery

A type of gender-affirming surgery that changes the appearance of the chest, such as removing breast tissue or creating a more masculine or feminine chest.

Phalloplasty

A gender-affirming surgery that creates a penis using tissue from another part of the body.

Vaginoplasty

A gender-affirming surgery that creates a vagina and vulva.

Facial Feminization Surgery

A type of gender-affirming surgery that changes facial features to appear more typically feminine, such as the forehead, jaw, chin, or nose.

Tracheal Shave

A gender-affirming procedure that reduces the size of the Adam’s apple by reshaping the thyroid cartilage, making the neck appear more typically feminine.

Caveats of Identity Development: These models generally assume stability

Sexual orientation is stable. Research tells us that this assumption is false; for many people, their orientation changes over the course of their lives.

Caveats of Identity Development: Some models assume a dichotomy

Only two options: gay/lesbian or straight.

Caveats of Identity Development: Much of the research involves retrospective analyses

People recall their earlier lives. We need to remember that memory is fallible.

Cass’s Model of Lesbian/Gay Identity Development

A model of lesbian and gay identity development that describes a series of stages people may go through as they understand themselves and their sexual orientation. People may move at different paces and may return to previous stages as they learn who they are and develop their personal identity

Cass’s Model Stage 1: Identity Confusion

A stage where people may feel uncertain or confused about their sexual orientation. They may feel different from others, seek information, and experience anxiety while trying to understand their feelings.

Cass’s Model Stage 2: Identity Comparison

A stage where people recognize their romantic interests and compare themselves to others with similar identities. They realize they are not alone (validated), but may still experience anxiety and internal conflict because of stigma or fear of others’ reactions.

Cass’s Model Stage 3: Identity Tolerance

A stage where people begin to accept the sexual orientation label they have been considering. They may connect with the LGBTQIA+ community, question negative stigma, increase self-acceptance, and reduce feelings of shame.

Cass’s Model Stage 4: Identity Acceptance

A stage where people feel more confident, stable, and positive about their sexual orientation. They may connect with LGBTQIA+ groups for support and solidarity, while experiencing greater self-esteem and confidence.

Cass’s Model Stage 5: Identity Pride

A stage where people openly embrace and celebrate their sexual orientation. They may actively participate in LGBTQIA+ groups and activities, advocate for LGBTQIA+ rights, and become more visible in the community.

Cass’s Model Stage 6: Identity Synthesis

The final stage where a person sees their sexual orientation as one part of their overall identity, rather than something separate or negative. They live their life with pride, confidence, and a sense of an authentic self.

Weinberg’s Model of Bisexual Development

A model describing two phases of bisexual identity development: Sexual Activity and Sexual Identity. In the first phase, people may have relationships with men and women without using a label; in the second, they may identify as bisexual and integrate it into their identity.

Clifford and Orford’s Model of Transgender Identity

A 2003 framework that describes the development of transgender identity. It provides a straightforward model for understanding how people may develop and understand their gender identity.

Clifford and Orford’s Model Phase 1:

Develop an awareness of being different.

Clifford and Orford’s Model Phase 2:

Start the process. This includes disclosing to others, getting professional assistance, and considering treatment.

Clifford and Orford’s Model Phase 3:

Acclimatizing to their life, whether they have altered their gender expression or not.

Kelleher and Murphy’s Asexual Identity Development

A model based on interviews with almost 100 asexual people that identified four common themes: becoming asexual, being asexual, intimate social expression, and internalization. The model focuses on asexuality, not aromantic identities.

Kelleher and Murphy’s Theme 1: Becoming Asexual

A stage where asexual people may feel different from their peers and search for information to understand their experiences. They may first identify as gay or lesbian, but later discover that “asexual” better describes their lack of sexual attraction.

Kelleher and Murphy’s Theme 2: Being Asexual

A stage where people accept the asexual label and feel relief because it explains their experiences. They may connect with the asexual community, develop pride in their identity, and advocate for awareness and acceptance.

Kelleher and Murphy’s Theme 3: Intimate Social Expression

A theme involving relationships and coming out as asexual. Asexual people may want romantic relationships without sex, close friendships, or no partner. When they come out, they may face disbelief, pressure to change, or assumptions that their asexuality is caused by trauma or will go away.

Kelleher and Murphy’s Theme 4: Internalization 

A theme where people incorporate their asexuality into their self-identity. They may experience loneliness or exclusion because society often emphasizes romantic relationships, love, and having children.