Cardio Pathophysiology Chapter 2

What does the prefix cardio refer to

The heart

What does the term vascular refer to

Blood vessels

What does the prefix patho refer to

Disease

What is physiology

How a living organism functions

What is cardiovascular pathophysiology

The processes that lead to disease in the heart and blood vessels

What is the myocardium

The specific contractile muscle tissue found only in the heart

Why does myocardium have a higher density of mitochondria than skeletal muscle

To support continuous aerobic energy production and pumping

What is the function of intercalated cells in the myocardium

They transmit action potentials directly between myocardial cells

What is the pericardium

The protective structure that encases the myocardium

What is the role of pericardial fluid

It allows the heart to beat smoothly without friction inside the pericardium

Which great vessels bring deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium

Superior and inferior vena cava

Which valve sits between the right atrium and the right ventricle

Tricuspid valve

Which valve lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery

Pulmonary semilunar valve

Where does the pulmonary artery transport blood

To the lungs for gas exchange

Which vessels bring oxygenated blood back from the lungs to the left atrium

Pulmonary veins

Which valve sits between the left atrium and the left ventricle

Bicuspid or mitral valve

Which valve sits between the left ventricle and the aorta

Aortic valve

What is the primary pacemaker of the heart

Sinoatrial or SA node

What is the primary function of the AV node

It delays the electrical impulse so the atria can empty into the ventricles

What electrical structure connects the AV node to the bundle branches

AV bundle

Which part of the cardiac conduction system has the fastest conduction speed

Purkinje fibers

In what order does blood flow through the peripheral vessels

Arteries to arterioles to capillaries to venules to veins

What is the primary function of capillaries

Serving as the site for gas and nutrient exchange

What is the role of the coronary arteries

To deliver oxygenated blood directly to the myocardium

What are the two main branches of the left coronary artery

The left circumflex artery and the left anterior descending artery

What occurs during Phase 0 of the cardiac cycle

Ventricular Filling

What occurs during Phase 1 of the cardiac cycle

Ventricular stimulation

What occurs during Phase 2 of the cardiac cycle

Isovolumic Contraction

What occurs during Phase 3 of the cardiac cycle

Rapid Ejection

What happens to the aortic valve during Phase 4 of the cardiac cycle

Reduced Ejection

What occurs during Phase 5 of the cardiac cycle

Isovomunic Relaxation

What occurs during Phase 6 of the cardiac cycle

Renewed Ventricular Filling

What is cardiac output

The total volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle into the circulation in one minute

What is the formula for cardiac output

heart rate multiplied by stroke volume

What is the Fick Equation for oxygen uptake

cardiac output multiplied by arterial-venous oxygen difference

What does arterial-venous oxygen difference measure

The amount of oxygen extracted and consumed by active tissues from the blood

What is a chronotropic factor

Any factor that directly influences heart rate

What neurotransmitter causes an increase in heart rate

Norepinephrine

Which hormone released from the adrenal gland increases heart rate during exercise

Epinephrine

What is stroke volume

The volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle with each contraction

What is an inotropic factor

Any factor that influences stroke volume and contraction strength

What is preload

The pressure and stretch in the left ventricle immediately prior to contraction

What is end diastolic volume

The total volume of blood in the left ventricle at the end of filling

What is afterload

The pressure in the aorta at the end of diastole that the ventricle must overcome

What is end systolic volume

The volume of blood remaining in the left ventricle immediately after contraction

What is the mathematical formula for stroke volume

end diastolic volume minus end systolic volume

What is ejection fraction

The percentage of blood pumped out of the heart chamber during a single contraction

What is the mathematical formula for ejection fraction

100 times stroke volume divided by end diastolic volume

What is the Frank-Starling mechanism

Increased ventricular stretch from greater venous return causes the heart to contract with greater vigor

How does adrenergic stimulation affect stroke volume

It increases stroke volume by raising myocardial contractility

Why must coronary blood flow increase during exercise to meet myocardial oxygen demands

The resting myocardium already extracts nearly all available oxygen from blood at baseline

What is the formula for rate pressure product or double product

heart rate multiplied by systolic blood pressure

What does rate pressure product indicate

A simple clinical measure of myocardial oxygen demand

What is the basic equation for hemodynamic blood flow

the change in pressure divided by resistance

Which heart chamber has the highest blood pressure

Left ventricle

Which heart chamber has the lowest blood pressure

Right atrium

What is vasoconstriction

Contraction of vascular smooth muscle that decreases blood vessel diameter and flow

What is vasodilation

Relaxation of vascular smooth muscle that increases blood vessel diameter and flow

What does systolic blood pressure measure

The pressure exerted against arterial walls during ventricular contraction

What does diastolic blood pressure measure

The baseline pressure in the arteries between heartbeats

What is VO2

The volume of oxygen consumed by the body at any given time

What is VO2max

The whole-body criterion measure of cardiorespiratory and aerobic fitness

How many times above resting levels can cardiac output increase during exercise

3 to 6 times resting levels

At what exercise intensity does stroke volume plateau

At approximately 60 percent of VO2max

How are further increases in cardiac output achieved after stroke volume plateaus

Solely by increasing heart rate

How is age-predicted maximal heart rate estimated

220 minus your age

What happens to systolic blood pressure during acute exercise

It increases greatly

What happens to diastolic blood pressure during acute exercise

It remains relatively unchanged

What initiates the atherosclerotic process under the response to injury theory

Damage to the vascular endothelium

What is the immediate response of platelets following endothelial injury

They adhere to the site and release growth factors

What do activated monocytes become after migrating to damaged vascular tissue

Macrophages

How are foam cells formed in the arterial wall

Macrophages ingest large quantities of oxidized LDL cholesterol

What causes the majority of myocardial infarctions

Rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque forming a thrombus

What is myocardial ischemia

Insufficient blood and oxygen delivery causing a shift to anaerobic metabolism and acidosis

What is a myocardial infarction

Irreversible cellular necrosis or tissue death of the myocardium