Sociology-Research Methods

Types of data

Quantitative-number data

Qualitative-letter date

Primary data-data collected by researcher for their own research

Secondary data-data collected by someone else but sociologist uses it for their own purposes

Examples of data research

Quantitative Primary-questionares, structured interviews, experiments

Quantitative Secondary-official statistics

Qualitative Primary-participant observation, unstructured interviews

Qualitative Secondary-Letters, diaries, photographs, documents, websites

Qualitative Strengths and Weaknesses

+Provide valid, truthful data

+Provides rich descriptions of peoples lives

+Allows empathetic understanding (VERSTEHEN)

+Detailed insight into world of people being researched

-small scale so not representative

-hard to replicate-not reliable

-time consuming and costly

-Hawthorne effect-act differently on camera

Quantitative Strengths and Weaknesses

+Large scale, representative so can make generalisations

+Easy to replicate-reliable

+Researchers values do not influence study-is objective

-lacks detail and depth

-cannot be understanding of how people think+Feel-lacks VERSTEHEN

-Researcher simply hired hand, gains no rapport with those being researched

-Snap shot in time and not necessarily real version of events, not valid

Practical Issues

Time and Money-resources-e.g cost of postal questionnaires

Requirements of funding bodies-what sponsors want, may require particular type of data

Personal skills and characteristics-in depth interviews rely on interviewers building rapport with interviewee

Subject Matter-male researcher may struggle to gain access to a female gang

Research Opportunity-access-may just happen ‘out of the blue’

Ethical Issues

Informed consent-must be fully informed and have right to refuse

Confidentiality-identity must be kept private

Effects of participants-psychological or physical harm

Vulnerable Groups-special care to vulnerable groups such as young children, disabled, mentally ill

Covert Research-involvement in dangerous and illegal activity

Theoretical Issues

Validity-allows us to get closer to truth, if research produces true+genuine picture of society

Reliability-can it be replicated, should be able to repeat same results

Representativeness-people being studied must be true cross section of society-large quantitative research

VERSTEHEN-Empathetic understanding, research allows full understanding of who you study

Postivism

Large scale quantitative data

Behaviour influenced by external social factors

Sociology should be scientific and analyse social facts

Laws discoverable by accumulating data

Humans can be measured and predicted

Social fact=things that affect behavior and can be easily measured

Interested in cause and effect relationships

Test hypothesis in controlled way

Like reliable and objective methods

Objective-no researcher bias

Reliable-replicable+standardised

Representative-sample must be a cross section of wider population of society-allows generalisations

Positivist Methods and Reliability and Representativeness

Official statistics, questionares, experiments, structured interviews

Two R’S-Quantitative, Standardised procedure, large scale, objective

Interpretivism

Verstehen-can only understand human behaviour through empathy and putting ourselves in their shoes (Max Weber)

Uncover meanings people give to their actions and actions of others

Researcher should not be detached but instead subjective

Sociology isn’t scientific-humans can’t be measured

Validity-truthful data found by building a rapport with those being studied

Interpretivism methods+Valid Data

Historical documents, observations, unstructured interviews

Valid Data-VERSTEHEN, small scale, develop rapport with interviewees, check meanings+observe natural behavior

Positivist Advantages

+Supports debate that sociology can be scientific

+Allows us to study external constraints on humans

Positivist Disadvantages

-Ignores meaning of social actions

-People have subjective consciousness so not easily predictable

-Fails to recognise there is more than one social reality due to diff perceptions

Positivist Study

Durkheim-suicide has social causes so is scientific

Used official statistics to show suicide was a social fact

Caused by Integration and Regulation

Integration-feeling apart of a community-too much or too little causes suicide

Regulation-rules-too much or too little causes suicide

Interpretivism Advantages

Micro approach-focuses on small ordinary things in life that are are often missed by macro scale approaches

Interpretivism Disadvantages

Lacks reliability+not representative

Rapport doesn't always lead to the truth

May behave differently if they know they are being watched-Hawthorne Effect

Interpretivism Study

Douglas-can’t study suicide like a science as you must uncover meaning individuals give to suicide

Must look at qualitative data to reveal reason it is perceived as suicide e.g coroners note and suicide notes

Cannot generalise experiences

Reasons for choice of topic

Societal Values-sociologists part of society-influenced by values-e.g immediate issues

Funding Bodies-required funding so will only pay if research is something they want

Practical Factors-may not have access to the topic-e.g private government information

Theoretical Perspective-theoretical standpoint-e.g feminism or marxism

Process of research

. Formulate aim (more open ended) (interpretivist) and hypothesis (more scientific to accumulate data) (Positivist)

. Collect evidence

. Need to operationalise concepts (provide working definitions so we can devsie questions to measure them e.g social class )

. Conduct pilot study-draft version of a questionnaire-(trial run to iron out problems

. Make sampling frame(list of people we wish go study)

. Select sample(list we choose to take part) to make generalisations (Positivist wants a representative sample)

Sample type-Random

Choose participants at random-simplest

Could be drawn out of a hat

Sampel Type-Stratified

Divided into strata or group

Allows representative sample

Can be done for any variable-e.g ethnicity

Sample Type-Quota

Similar to stratified

Find right number of each sort of person

Sample Type-Quasi Random/Systematic

Every 10th or 100th person is chosen from list

Chance it is not truly representative

Areas of Research (Studying Pupils)

Power and status-teachers have superior power

Compulsory for kids to attend school

Teacher labelling and encouragement affects research

Kids must ask to use the toilet

Considerations to make: social class, gender, ethnicity - e.g WC more often have fatalistic attitudes and immediate gratification (sugarman)

Areas of Research (Studying Pupils)

Ability

May be unable to read or write (not proper consent)

May not be able to understand questions

Areas of Research (Studying Pupils)

Vulnerability and Ethical Issues

Confidentiality-lack of understanding and consent

Effect on participants-psychological harm

Vulnerable Groups-must be careful

Covert Research-go undercover as a teacher-(no consent to study by students)

Law and guidelines-e.g DBS checks

Areas of Research (Researching Teachers) Power and Status

Problems

Pressure of responsibility-some teachers more experienced

Higher up chain of seniority-less able to access them to question them

Areas of Research (Researching Teachers)

Impression management-Hawethorne effect-diff behaviour when watched

Teachers used to being observed

Areas of Research (Researching Schools)

Head teachers may refuse access to study to avoid negative results-marketisation

Meighan-how head teachers feel about research

-discipline adversely affected

-bad for classroom relationships

-children not competent to judge teachers

Data protection-some not available to sociologists that is collected by

Areas of Research (Researching Schools)

Methods

Secondary data sociologists can use:

-Ofsted reports

-Exam results+league tables

-marketing websites+prospectus

Go at times where school is less busy-e.g when last year has finished exams

Areas of Research (Researching Parents)

Difficult to contact parents-can send letters home with students but parents may not see it

Difficult to observe relationships between parents and teachers

Social class of parents may determine if they want to participate-MC are privileged skilled choosers and proactive vs WC-Disconnected Local choosers-focusing on making money