MOTIVATION AND EMOTION EXAM ONE

Motivation

the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior, studied because it helps us explain and predict behavior (why does someone choose option X and not option Y?)

Intensity of motivation

more intense behaviors are considered to be a result of higher motivation

Primary human motivators

hunger, thirst, sex

How to measure intensity

observation, performance, stress/cortisol or anxiety

motivation is combination of…(3 things)

overt response, persistence, and vigor

Nomothetic motivation analysis

assumes discoveries about one species will translate to another species, aims to discover how people or animals are SIMILAR

Idiographic motivation analysis

aims to discover how species (people/animals) are DIFFERENT

ex. Wernicke’s and Broca’s area differ in location depending on the person

Innate motivation analysis

follows our instincts, motivation is something we are born with

acquired motivation analysis

learned behaviors, how do we learn?

Cognitive motivation analysis

motivation is rational, purposeful thought

Mechanistic motivation analysis

motivation is a mechanical process, triggered automatically by certain stimuli

Electroencephalogram (EEG) Imaging

measures electrical activity of brain cells, creating graphed squiggles

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

magnet causes the ions in your brain to flip in certain directions, creating a black and white image

Positron-Emission Tomography (PET scan)

uses low-radioactive substance to tell us where activity is in the brain (colorful photography of the brain)

Freud’s Aversive State

theorists view motivation as an aversive state, creating a condition of tension that the individual seeks to reduce

Maslow and Rodgers’ Humanistic Theory for Motivation

behavior is oriented towards self-actualization (motivation is a POSITIVE state that pushes an individual to attain self-actualization)

Festinger’s cognitive dissonance

you know something to be bad/true, but you do it anyway (cigs are bad, but we smoke them anyway lol)

cognitive processes as motivation - thinking through things to decide on whats best

Hedonism

the oldest theory for motivation: we are motivated by pleasure and pain

Afferent Nerves

takes information from skin to brain/spinal chord (Arriving at the brain)

Efferent nerve

takes information from brain to muscles (Exits the brain)

Localization

first brought up by Franz Gall (phrenology), proposing that particular mental abilities are located in specific regions of the brain (parts of the brain with similar functions will also be close together)

John Watson/Behaviorism and motivation

belief that motivation of behavior was the result of consequences of behavior (pleasurable consequences would be sought again, aversive consequences avoided)

Clark Hull - Drive theory

he tried to apply math to motivational theory (this doesn’t rly matter who gaf)

Evolutionary theory of motivation

Motivation for specific behaviors can be traced back to processes of life and survival

reproduction: replicating oneself

metabolism: energy conservation, necessary for survival

asexual reprodction

MITOSIS (single cells divide into two identical daughter cells)

sexual reproduction

MEIOSIS (reproduction using two specialized cells, male and female)

motivation according to sexual arousal

resources are limited, and living organisms are in constant competition for reproduction. So, primary motivators (hunger, thirst, sex) drive the need for behavior.

viability

whether a gene that expresses a certain behavior will increase the likelihood of reproducing (how likely is it that the offspring will survive?)

fertility

mating success, how likely is it that the offspring will successfully reproduce

fecundity

the potential for more offspring (how much will the offspring reproduce?)

optimal female mating strategies

females have limited genetic availability, meaning their optimal strategies are:

• select a mate who will provide her offspring with highest chance of survival

• resource accumulation! (women are attracted to men with resources)

optimal male mating strategies

men have unlimited genetic availability, meaning their optimal strategies are:

• mate with as many females as possible

Eibl-Eibesfeldt (genetics and behavior)

• found that when humans recognize other humans, a set of genetically programmed behaviors occur (raised eyebrows, smile, etc)

• genetically programmed behavior that occurs when certain clauses are met and requires no training (genetic, universal behavior)

• ALSO INCLUDES: sex drive, vomiting reflex, lying, vomiting

nominal fallacy

simply bc we label something or name something as instinct, does not explain the behavior

William James - Theory on Instinct

• believed instincts are like reflexes, happens innately the first time, until the purpose is learned (and thus then becomes a learned behavior)

• instinct can be moderated by experience, becoming learned behavior

habit and instinct

Habits can inhibit an instinct - if you’re afraid of your teacher (habit) it can inhibit your natural curiosity (instinct)

William McDougall - components of instinct

• cognitive: knowing an object that will satisfy a motive (food satisfies hunger)

• affective: feeling an emotion from an object that arouses us (feeling disgust when you see something moldy)

• Connotative: striving for an objective (if a rubix cube is put in front of us, we will wnat to play with it)

Teology

the study that behavior serves some ultimate purpose

ethology

a branch of biology focuses on the evolution/development/function of behavior

Consummatory Behavior

well coordinated, fixed-pattern behavior. EX. Mice will always have sex in the same position

appetitive behavior

restless, flexible, and adaptive to environment (depending on APPETITE! see what I did there)

for ex. a mouse may look for food in a different way (appetitive), but will always eat in the same way (consummatory)

social releaser

a stimuli that serves as a communicative function between members of the same species

supernormal stimulus

stimuli that incite behavior more effectively than a normal stimulus (EX. super salty chips are addicting bc they have hella salt on them)

fixed action patterns

a behavior that, once activated, must continue until completion (EX. sneezing, orgasm, the stickleback fish attacking other “fish”)

successive ambivalent behavior

alternating between incomplete responses/behaviors, representing two motivational states (the stickleback will alternate between attacking and retreating, deciding what to do)

simultaneous ambivalent behavior

when multiple motivational states can be expresses in one behavior at the same time (EX. the act of a cat raising its back can show it wants to both attack and retreat, its a combination of both behaviors)

redirect behavior

when an appropriate behavior occurs, but not at the appropriate object (a child will hit a pillow when angry)

ethological displacement

energy associated with two motives continues to accumulate but cannot be expressed through normal behavior (EX. fight, flight, freeze, or fawn - fight and flight balance out, so fawn is the behavior. The new behavior seems completely unrelated)

intention movements

a low intensity movement that indicates energy is going to be released (shift in weight! this also could be a social releaser)

imprinting

a socialization behavior in which a young organism forms and attachment to its parents (this is instinctive and learned, but happens without reward)

• Konrad Lorenz imprinted geese onto him bc he’s a freak. this is permanent.

open and closed programming

describes behaviors that can be modified by experience (open) or cannot be organized by experience (closed). Both of which are influenced by genes, but one is influenceable and the other is not)

delineating between learned and instinctive behaviors

• instinct is something innate (imprinting!).

• Learned behaviors is based on observation of behavior and then imitating it (modeling!).

• Reflexes are based on a physiological response to something (something uncontrollable, like sweating or the knee reflex!)

contemporary ethological findings

• many human behavior patterns seem to have innate components (EX. blind children still have the same facial expressions for sadness/smiling)

• our sensory systems are designed to respond to certain stimuli (EX. we are more likley to respond to moving animals/humans, than an object)

innate behavior - flirting

eye tag is a form of ritualized flight (looking at the person, then looking away). Sex is also innate, so flirting is a result of the sexual drive

Male brain area implicated for sex and agression

hypothalamus (as well as the amygdala, which determines if we should fear or be aroused by something)

female brain area implicated for sexual receptivity and agression

ventromedial hypothalamus (as well as the amygdala, which determines if we should fear or be aroused by something)

Monamine Oxidase A (MAOA) and aggression

MAOA is an enzyme that helps to break down NT including 5-HT, NE, and DA (all of which are NT that are involved in physical reactions to dangerous situations)

people with malfunctioning MAOA are at a constant state of tension, leading to violent overreactions

arousal theory

says that we can understand motivation by viewing it on a continuum of behavioral activation, ranging from low levels of arousal (coma/sleep, death) to very high levels of arousal (stress)

*there are many states of arousal! And our behavior will change as we become more aroused

*some problems with the theory include the assumption that cortical arousal is a motivated/emotional state (but is it just simuli recognition?)

yerkes-dodson law

• there is an optimal level of arousal per person

• performance reaches a peak when arousal is somewhere moderately high

Bremer research in 1937

Researched the encephale isole and cerveau isole lesions. Discovered that the RAS and pons have a big role in arousal. The area between the medulla and the thalamus!

Encephale Isole

a cut between the medulla and the spine, causing the animal to go through normal sleep/wake cycles, but be deprived of higher-cortical functions (similar to frontotemporal dementia)

Cerveau Isole

a cut higher up on the brainstem at the colliculi, causing the sleep-wake cycle to end and sending the animal into constant sleep, without the ability to wake spontaneously.

Hebb’s theory

theorizes that sensory information serves two purposes:

CUE FUNCTION - to provide information. The stimuli is sent to the RAS and the cortex by the thalamus

AROUSAL FUNCTION - to arouse the individual. If the individual’s cortex isn’t aroused, we don’t response. So, every time we response to stimuli we are aroused.

mechanisms of arousal - pathways of cortex arousal

the RAS is activated by sensory information, and arouses the cortex through two separate pathways:

• via the reticular formation - thalamus - cerebral cortex (making you more awake/aroused/motivated!!)

• via the reticular formation - lateral hypothalamus - basal ganglia - basal forebrain - activation of cerebral cortex and hippocampus (aiding with learning or memory!)

Histamine

produced in tuberomammillary nucleus of hypothalamus, promotes wakefulness and influences goal-directed motivation (regulates avoidance)

benadryl and claritin are anti-histamines!

orexin

a NT produced by neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (has a role in regulating sleep, wakefulness, and appetite)

alpha waves

associated with relaxed wakefulness, preceding sleep. The synchronization of electrical waves in the brain, allowing for calm and awake behavior.

beta waves

associated with busy wakefulness. Cells are all acting desynchronized (independently) from one another. A busy mind!

stages of sleep in order

Stage 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM….etc etc.

Stage 1 sleep

• irregular waves of LOW amplitude (but high frequency)

• theta waves

• 3.5-7.5 Hz

• lasts about 10-15 min

Stage 2 sleep

• similar to stage one, irregular waves of low amplitude and high frequency

• theta waves

• marked by SLEEP SPINDLES - increase in frequency

• marked by K complex - increase in amplitude

• 3.5-7.5 Hz

• 14 Hz spikes in K-complexes

Stage 3 sleep

• large waves of low frequency (occurs in around 20-50% of the graph, once its above 50% the individual is in stage 4)

• delta waves

• less than 3.5 Hz

stage 4 sleep

• large waves of low frequency (occurring more often than stage 3)

• delta waves

• achieved 30-45 min of falling asleep

• decreases with age!

REM sleep

• a combination of theta, beta, and alpha waves

• when dreams occur! Debates on whether we are semi-awake during this phase (since alpha/beta waves are present too)

• no muscle tone, so we don’t move

• REM and long-term memory are very closely tied together

• increased blood flow to brain and genitals

vasodilation

during NREM sleep - blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration decline. Arteries dilate

General Adaptation Syndrome (stress response)

1. alarm reaction

   1. stress response! The body prepares for fight or flight. Increased muscle synape, acceleration of breathing, and increasing heart rate

2. Resistance stage

   1. corticoid levels decrease, the body decides what impulses to act on or mobilize. For example, if you burn yourself, only your hand moves and we can resist the whole body pulling back.

3. Exhaustion Stage

   1. reaction to stress is normal again, the body is exhausted if the stress continues

vasocongestion

a concentration of blood in a certain body part (for sexual arousal - penis in males, clitoris in females)

myotonia

increased muscle tone throughout the body during sexual orgasm - maintained until orgasm resolution

stages of sexual arousal

1. excitement

   1. induced by physical or psychological stimuli. Penis becomes erect, vagina lubricates and lengthens

2. Plateau

   1. sexual arousal is intensified in preparation for the climax

3. Orgasm

   1. sexual climax, muscle contraction releases

4. Resolution

   1. the refractory period (10-30min for men)

why do we eat?

• receptors on our tongue give us information about a food and whether to ingest it or not. For example, we prefer salty things and don’t want to eat smelly foods

• MEMORY is a huge determinant in hunger - remembering when we last ate and what we now want to eat (people with frontotemporal dementia don’t remember that they’ve eaten, so they eat a lot)

absorptive phase

when digestive systems contain food and are absorbing nutrients

fasting phase

when digestive systems are empty and energy is received from stored resources

local vs central theories of hunger

• local theories emphasize the role of the organs - stomach contractions cause hunger

• central theories emphasize the role of the brain (centralized control) - suggests that cells in the brain detect changes and trigger the appropriate motivation (thirst/hunger)

• a study showed that severing the vagus nerve can cause stomach contraction to cease, but people will still experience hunger

hypothalamus

• located under the thalamus

• controls both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

• controls pituitary gland, endocrine system, and homeostasis

glucostatic theory of hunger

• Short-term hunger regulation - hypothalamus/pancreas measures the amount of glucose in the blood/body to determine if hunger signals should be sent

lesion to hypothalamus…

produces obesity in animals

lesions to lateral hypothalamus….

causes animals to stop eating completely

Lipostatic theory of hunger

• long term theory. The body has a set point body weight, which the lateral hypothalamus to communicate the natural body weight.

• if the body needs to bring the weight back up, it triggers a hunger response

leptin

• A hormone produced by fat cells and released into blood stream in proportion to the amount of energy in fat stores.

• Lean individuals will have less leptin, obese individuals will have higher leptin.

• lower than normal leptin sends hunger signals

digestion and regulation of hunger

• when we eat, enzymes in saliva break down the food, then to stomach, where it empties into small intestine called duodenum

• signals in stomach indicate satiety and turn off eating

• the entire gastrointestinal tract sends and receives info to the brain via the vagus nerve

peripheral hunger (not stomach or brain)

• DUODENUM: small intestine, contains glucoreceptors that may indicate hunger

• LIVER: potential source of hunger

• PANCREAS: signals glucose availability!

Obesity

• a long-term imbalance between energy intake and energy usage

• defined by 20% above the tabled values for the person’s height and build (though this calculation doesn’t work for body builders)

• basal metabolism reduces with age, making it harder to lose weight

• dieting may not reduce fat cells, but reduce individual fat cell size

sexual dimorphism/difference in sex brain function

• during the first six weeks of gestation, male and female fetuses are sexually the same.

• males - more intra-hemispheric connectivity (one hemisphere)

• females - more inter-hemispheric connectivity (signals travel between both hemispheres)

• the development of sex in a fetus leads to sexual genetic traits: intromission, attracivity, and proceptivity

intromission

penetration

attractivity

females wanting to attract males

receptivity

specific behaviors that sexually arouse males

sham rage and expression of anger

• cortex is not necessary for expression of anger

  • decorticated cats show sham rage - anger but not directed towards any stimuli

limbic system

• contains the hypothalamus (and other structures, the PAPEZ CIRCUIT) help regulate emotion