AQA Geography contemporary urban environments

Urbanisation

The increase of the proportion of people moving to urban areas from rural areas.

Suburbanisation

The outward expansion of cities, where people, businesses and services move from inner city areas to the rural-urban fringe, creating low density, residential communities. Wealthy people moving away for a better quality of life.

Issues with suburbanisation

It can lead to inner-city areas becoming deprived and house prices in the suburbs to increase. To reduce urban sprawl strategies can be put into to limit suburbanisation such as the green belt, where there is restrictions on building.

Urban sprawl

The outward expansion of cities and towns into rural or undeveloped land.

Counter-urbanisation

The process of people moving out of cities into rural areas.

Reasons for counter-urbanisation (4)

• Overcrowding in urban areas

• Pollution in urban areas

• Larger houses

• Quieter environment

Urban resurgence

The process of people moving back into the city, especially after the deterioration of the area. These usually occur when councils and governments make schemes to improve the quality of life in that area.

Megacities

Urban cities with a population of over 10million

World cities

Cities that have significant political and economic influence on a global scale. They are not defined by population and size. They usually drive global economies and businesses, and are often hubs for banking and finance.

Social processes that occur with urbanisation (4)

1. People from different social and cultural backgrounds migrate into the city, increasing cultural diversity.

2. Access to a wider range of jobs.

3. Improved access to education and healthcare services.

4. Cultural hubs - galleries, museums, theatres and shopping centres

Economic processes that occur with urbanisation (3)

• Shift in employment from primary sector to tertiary sector.

• Rural-urban migration means more people are working and contributing to the economy, developing it.

• Economic inequality may increase

Technological and political processes that occur with urbanisation.

1. They become centres for technological advancement

2. New technology is often introduced first into the city

1. Central political institutions are almost always in the capital .

2. Political movements are more prevalent in cities

Demographic changes that occur with urbanisation (3)

1. Cities host a lot of cultural diversity, demographic more diverse.

2. Predominantly young adults, as many move for jobs and a better education.

3. Older people tend to move to the suburbs in search of a better quality of life.

Deindustrialisation

The decline of manufacturing within a country, measured by the reduction of manufacturing employment and the shut down of factories.

It has occurred on a mass scale in western society due to struggle to compete with cheaper labour in countries such as China

Impact of deindustrialisation

When there is insufficient support to create new suitable employment opportunities by the government, masses of people are left unemployed.

This has caused increasing levels of social deprivation, worsening health, education and crime.

Drivers of tertiary sector expansion. (2)

• To support the increasing disposable incomes who want to buy leisure, entertainment and tourism.

• Technology has increased so people can use services and online without the need for transport

Decentralisation

The process of urban developments moving away from the city centre, such as large shopping centres or retail parks. This is because land prices are usually cheaper than in the CBD.

Urban form

It refers to the physical characteristics, such as its layout, size and land-use.

Physical factors for urban forms (4)

• Natural resources - Areas with lots of natural resources can encourage development in cities.

• Water - Used for agriculture, sanitation and health. It can act as barrier for urban sprawl on the coastline.

• Topography - Areas with flat land are easy to build on, so construction can be more spaced out.

• Climate and land-type - Unstable soils or water-logged soil can be difficult to build on, limiting urban growth

Human factors for urban forms. (3)

• Wealth - Richer countries are usually structurally safe as there is building regulations. In developing countries urban growth can be uncontrollable.

• Planning - Planned developments are considerate of space and safety

• Past developments - The original structure of a city may change how a city develops.

Fortress developments

Areas which are secured from public access. There may be CCTV, security guards and physical barriers such as gates to stop people from getting in.

Edge cities

An area of business, shops and entertainment services on the outskirts of a city, usually by transport links. Cheaper land outside the CBD.

Mixed-use developments

Urban planning that blends residential, commercial, cultural and industrial uses into one area.

The Post-Modern Western City (PMWC)

Contemporary cities are changing architectural style and land use in order to keep up with socioeconomic changes in soceity.

Post-Modern Western City characteristics (4)

• Unusual architecture with strange styles and shapes.

• Tertiary and quaternary industries are the main sectors of the economy.

• Fragmented urban forms rather than being concentrated in one place.

• A large amount of socioeconomic inequality

Process of gentrification (5)

1. Lower middle class, migrate into cheap run-down cities and renovate their homes.

2. The place gains a fashionable status, attracting young professionals.

3. Private sector investors buy and renovate more of the housing.

4. Wealthy migrants and foreign investors move in.

5. House prices rapidly increase and the lower income locals are forced to move away.

Benefits of gentrification (3)

• Increasing number and range of businesses and services

• Increased tax revenue for local authority

• Improved physical environment

Costs of gentrification (3)

• Low income groups are priced out of the housing market

• Tension between new and old residents

• Losses of local businesses

Social segregation

Where groups of people live apart from one another or from the larger population due to factors such as wealth, ethnicity or religion

Issues with social segregation (3)

• Areas can be under attack from prejudice and racism

• People may feel isolated if they are not within the demographic of the majority

• Migrants are limited with housing options and have to live in cheaper, more deprived areas

How to encourage multiculturalism?

Festivals such as Notting Hill carnival can encourage social cohesion and allow people to celebrate different cultures.

Retraining for regeneration

A population with a skills base aligned to the needs of the primary/secondary industry need to retrain to have the skills necessary to be successful in new service-led economies.

The role of government policies (3)

• Investment in transport infrastructure can improve accessibility to regions.

• They can control the type of developments through planning laws

• Decisions about international migration significantly impact growth.

The European Social Fund (ESF)

It aims to tackle poverty and social exclusion by increasing employment and helping people to access sustainable employment, as well as investing in skills and improving the diversity of the workforce.

Re-urbanisation

Large scale, government backed movement of people back into the city as a part of regeneration.

Trends in re-urbanisation (4)

• Increase in the construction of centrally located flats and apartments.

• Increase in studentification with the expansion of student accommodations and new universities.

• Rapid population increase.

• New public transport networks.

Urban heat island effect

When urban areas produce and retain more heat then the surrounding rural areas.

Reasons for the urban heat island effect (3)

1. Wasted heat from activities that release heat such as traffic, factories and homes.

2. Urban materials have a lower albedo (absorb and store more solar energy) than other surfaces. They then emit this heat warming the surroundings.

3. Heat is lost through evapotranspiration. Less vegetation so less transpiration. Urban drainage systems like drains reduce the amount of surface water, so less energy lost through evaporation.

Wind in urban areas

Wind speed is lowered in urban areas due to the presence of many tall buildings which cause friction and act as a barrier to wind. However, turbulence can occur around buildings due to frictional drag, forcing air to swirl like a vortex.

Sources of particulates (3)

1. Vehicle exhausts produce pollution such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides and particulate matter.

2. Industrial activities such as coal burning factories produce many particulates.

3. Construction can agitate coarse particulates to become suspended in the air.

Particulates

A mixture of solid particles and liquid suspended in the air. They reduce the air quality and are produced from urban activities.

Photochemical smog

Air pollution caused when particulates react with the UV light from the sun. Nitrous oxides from vehicle exhausts and volatile organic carbons from industrial activities interact with sunlight to produce hazardous secondary ozone and peroxyacyl nitrates.

Why does photochemical smog stay at ground level?

Due to Temperature inversion- Cool air is trapped below warmer air and causes the air to remain still.

London congestion charge

Cars are fined for driving in certain hours if their car is not electric. It is designed to reduce congestion and pollution.

Differences of urban drainage (3)

• Impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration, meaning there is only surface run-off.

• Drainage structures to direct water elsewhere, during high intensity rainfall

• There is a short lag time and high peak discharge

Catchment management strategies (4)

• Dredging - Where sediments are removed from the river using machinery, reducing flooding as more water can flow in it.

• Physically altering water courses through straightening channels and creating drain pipe systems can be effective at removing water from urban areas.

• Dams can be used to manipulate water flows

• Reservoirs can be used as a water supply

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)

Systems that are designed to manage the flow of urban water sustainably, rather than using construction and unsustainable techniques.

Examples of SUDS (5)

• Swales - Depressions in the ground which act as a natural drainage system that slows water flow.

• Permeable paving - Surfaces that let water soak through to the ground below.

• Green roofs - Plants grown on roofs to increase transpiration.

• Ponds - A store of rainwater.

• Water butts - A large container that collects and stores rainwater.

Types of waste (3)

• Industrial - Waste produced from construction, power production or manufacturing.

• Commercial - Waste produced by businesses.

• Personal - Waste produced by humans in their homes.

Strategies to make urban cities more sustainable. (3)

• Reducing waste - recycling and composting

• Reducing fuel emissions - public transport, cycling, walking

• Green spaces - reduces effects of flooding and pollutants.