FINALS (IN THE NAME OF GOD, WE’LL ACE IT)

Personality

The long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways.

Hippocrates' Four Temperaments

The theory that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate bodily fluids: choleric (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic (white phlegm from the lungs).

Galen's Humoral Theory

The expansion of Hippocrates' view proposing that diseases and personality differences are caused by imbalances in the four humors, categorizing people as choleric (passionate, ambitious, bold), melancholic (reserved, anxious, unhappy), sanguine (joyful, eager, optimistic), or phlegmatic (calm, reliable, thoughtful).

Franz Gall's Phrenology (1780)

The proposal by German physician Franz Gall that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person's personality traits, character, and mental abilities.

Unconscious

Mental activity of which an individual is unaware and unable to access, which Freud compared to the submerged nine-tenths of an iceberg.

Freudian Slip

An unintentional slip of the tongue where an unintended word is substituted for the intended one, viewed by Freud as a reflection of unconscious desires.

Id

The personality structure present from birth that contains the most primitive drives or urges and operates on the pleasure principle, seeking instant gratification.

Ego

The rational aspect of personality that operates on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id and superego within the context of reality.

Superego

The moral component of personality that operates on morality principles, acts as a moral compass or conscience, strives for perfection, and leads to feelings of pride or guilt.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious protective behaviors utilized by the ego to reduce anxiety when it is unable to mediate conflicts between the id and superego.

Denial

A defense mechanism involving the refusal to accept real events because they are unpleasant.

Displacement

A defense mechanism in which inappropriate urges or behaviors are transferred onto a more acceptable or less threatening target.

Projection

A defense mechanism wherein an individual attributes their own unacceptable desires to others.

Rationalization

A defense mechanism in which an individual justifies behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons.

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism that reduces anxiety by adopting beliefs and behaviors contrary to one's genuine beliefs.

Regression

A defense mechanism characterized by returning to coping strategies associated with less mature stages of development.

Repression

A defense mechanism that involves suppressing painful memories, unacceptable urges, and thoughts from conscious awareness.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism involving the redirection of unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels.

Erogenous Zone

A specific area of the body where a child's pleasure-seeking urges from the id are focused during each psychosexual stage of development.

Oral Stage

The first psychosexual stage (birth to 1 year old), where pleasure is focused on the mouth via eating and sucking; improper weaning may lead to adult oral fixations like smoking or overeating.

Anal-Retentive Personality

An adult personality outcome resulting from harsh toilet training during the anal stage (1 to 3 years old), characterized by stinginess, stubbornness, perfectionism, and a compulsive need for order and neatness.

Anal-Expulsive Personality

An adult personality outcome of the anal stage characterized by messiness, carelessness, disorganization, and a tendency toward emotional outbursts.

Phallic Stage

The third psychosexual stage (3 to 6 years old), where pleasure is focused on the genitals and conflict arises from desire for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent.

Oedipus Complex

A phallic stage conflict wherein a boy experiences desire for his mother and an urge to replace his father, who is viewed as a rival.

Electra Complex

A phallic stage conflict wherein a girl desires her father's attention, wishes to take her mother's place, and experiences penis envy toward the mother for not providing her with a penis.

Latency Period

A period from 6 years old to puberty where sexual feelings remain dormant while children focus on school, friendships, hobbies, and activities with same-sex peers.

Genital Stage

The final psychosexual stage occurring from puberty onwards, marked by a sexual reawakening where incestuous urges resurface and are redirected toward socially acceptable partners.

Individual Psychology

The school of psychology founded by Alfred Adler, which focuses on the human drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority.

Inferiority Complex

Alfred Adler's concept referring to a person's feelings that they lack worth and do not measure up to the standards of others or society.

Adler's Three Fundamental Social Tasks

Three core life tasks identified by Alfred Adler that every individual must experience: occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (intimate relationships).

Psychosocial Theory of Development

Erik Erikson's theory identifying eight stages across the entire lifespan, each representing a specific conflict or developmental task necessary for healthy personality formation.

Analytical Psychology

Carl Jung's approach to psychology, which focuses on balancing opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought and experience within one's personality.

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a universal layer of the unconscious shared by all humans, containing common mental patterns and ancestral memory traces.

Archetypes

Ancestral memories within the collective unconscious, manifested as universal themes in literature, art, and dreams across cultures.

Womb Envy

Karen Horney's proposition that men experience jealousy toward women because men cannot give birth.

Basic Anxiety

Karen Horney's term for unconscious anxiety resulting from unmet needs in childhood, such as experiences of loneliness and isolation.

Horney's Three Coping Styles

Strategies used to manage basic anxiety: moving toward people (affiliation and dependence), moving against people (aggression and assertiveness), and moving away from people (detachment and isolation).

Reciprocal Determinism

Albert Bandura's concept stating that cognitive processes, behavior, and environmental context all interact simultaneously, each influencing and being influenced by the others.

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura's concept that individuals learn behavior patterns by watching models and observing whether those models are reinforced or punished.

Self-Efficacy

An individual's level of confidence in their own abilities, developed through social experiences, which dictates how they approach challenges and goals.

Locus of Control

Julian Rotter's concept referring to beliefs regarding personal power over life events; categorized as internal (outcomes result from effort) or external (outcomes are beyond control).

Person-Situation Debate

A decades-long controversy triggered by Walter Mischel's findings that an individual's personality traits are not necessarily consistent across different situations.

Humanism

The 'third force' in psychology that emphasizes the depth of human experience, personal choice, and an innate capacity for self-directed change, reacting against psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Heritability

The proportion of difference among people in a population that is attributed to genetics.

Temperament

Innate, biologically based personality tendencies appearing early in life; characterized by reactivity and self-regulation, or categorized by Thomas and Chess as easy, difficult, or slow to warm up.

Cardinal Trait

A rare personality trait that dominates an individual's entire personality and their whole life.

Central Traits

Core traits that make up our basic personality (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy).

Secondary Traits

Traits that are less consistent or obvious than central traits, appearing only under specific circumstances (including preferences and attitudes).

Five Factor Model (Big Five)

A trait theory capturing five core dimensions of personality remembered by the mnemonic OCEAN: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Selective Migration

The concept that individuals choose to move to geographic places that are compatible with their personalities and needs.

Cultural-Comparative Approach

An approach to studying personality across cultures that tests Western concepts in non-Western cultures to evaluate their generalizability and cultural validity.

Indigenous Approach

An approach to personality assessment that arose in reaction to the dominance of Western models, focusing on developing personality concepts native to non-Western settings.

Self-Report Inventories

Objective personality assessments utilizing numbered scales (such as 1 to 5 Likert scales) or multiple-choice questions to gather self-evaluations.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A widely used self-report personality inventory first published in 1943 with 504 true/false questions, later updated to the MMPI-2 in 1989 with 567 questions.

Projective Tests

Personality tests relying on the defense mechanism of projection, presenting ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious feelings, impulses, and desires.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective assessment where a psychologist presents a series of symmetrical inkblot cards and asks 'What might this be?' to reveal unconscious struggles.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test where individuals view 8 to 12 ambiguous pictures and tell stories about them to reveal insights into their social world, hopes, fears, and goals.

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)

A projective test consisting of 40 incomplete sentence stems that participants complete as quickly as possible to reveal unconscious desires, fears, and struggles.

Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)

A culturally relevant projective test containing 20 color images portraying scenes of African-American lifestyles.

TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test

A projective test designed for minority groups, especially Hispanic youths, using culturally relevant images and storytelling cues ('temas' or 'Tell Me a Story').

Motivation

________ is what pushes us to act toward a goal

Intrinsic, Extrinsic

Types of motivation:

_______: Comes from WITHIN. You do something because it’s satisfying or enjoyable (e.g., studying because you love learning).

_______: Comes from OUTSIDE rewards or pressures (e.g, studying to get a high-paying job or to please your parents).

● Mix of motives: Most of the time, our actions are driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and the balance can change over time

Overjustification Effect

______________ → when external rewards reduce internal enjoyment. → example: • Odessa loves baking (intrinsic motivation). • When she gets a bakery job, baking becomes tied to money (extrinsic motivation). • Over time, she loses the desire to bake for fun.

Tangible rewards, Intangible rewards

____________ (like money) often REDUCE intrinsic motivation.

____________ (like praise) can BOOST intrinsic motivation.

Instinct Theory

___________ (William James)

● Early idea: behavior is driven by INSTINCTS (automatic, unlearned patterns that help survival).

● Examples: mother protecting her baby, craving sugar.

● Criticism: human behavior is strongly shaped by learning, not just instincts

Homeostasis, Drive theory

Drive Theory & Homeostasis

● ___________: the body TRIES to stay BALANCED (e.g., normal blood sugar).

● ___________: when balance is off, we feel a NEED → creates a DRIVE → motivates BEHAVIOR.

- Example: hunger drives us to eat, restoring

balance.

● Habits form: once a behavior reduces a drive, we repeat it in the future

Arousal Theory, Yerkes-Dodson Law

___________

● People seek an optimal level of arousal (not too bored, not too stressed).

● ___________:

- Simple tasks → HELP best with HIGHER arousal.

- Complex tasks → HELP best with LOWER arousal.

● Example: students stressed at semester’s end (too HIGH arousal), then bored in summer (too LOW).

Moderate arousal = best performance.

Self-Efficacy

___________ (Bandura)

● Motivation depends on belief in your ability to

succeed. IF you believe you CAN do something, you’re MORE likely to try HARD and PERSIST

Achievement, Affiliation, Intimacy

Social Motives

● Humans are motivated by social needs:

- _______: drive to succeed.

- _______: need to connect with others.

- _______: desire for close relationships.

● These fall into domains like ambition, power, and affection.

Physiological, Safety, Love & belonging, Esteem, Self-actualization

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

● Pyramid of needs, from basic to advanced:

- _________ (food, water)

- _________ (security, stability)

- _________ (relationships)

- _________ (confidence, respect)

- _________ (reaching full potential)

● Later, Maslow added self-transcendence (going beyond self, e.g., Gandhi’s hunger strikes for justice).

● Criticism: too subjective, doesn’t always fit real-life situations.

Hunger and Eating

___________ - Eating is necessary for survival, so hunger motivates us to find food.

Empty stomach, Low blood sugar, Rising blood sugar, Food moving through

Hunger and Satiety

● Hunger signals:

- __________ → contractions + chemical messages to the BRAIN.

- __________ → pancreas & liver send hunger SIGNALS.

● Satiety (fullness):

- __________ → signals to stop eating.

- __________ the digestive tract → satiety signals.

- Fat cells release leptin, a hormone that reduces hunger.

● Brain role: Hypothalamus and hindbrain integrate signals to decide when to eat or stop

Extra calories, Fewer calories, Metabolic rate, Set-point theory

Metabolism and Body Weight

● Calories in vs. calories out:

- _________ → stored as fat.

- _________ than burned → fat used for

energy.

● _________: varies by person; higher metabolism burns calories faster.

● _________: suggests each person has a “natural” weight range that resists change.

- Criticized because it doesn’t fully explain

social/environmental influences.

Bulimia nervosa, Binge eating disorder, Anorexia nervosa

Eating Disorders

● _______: binge eating → purging (vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise).

- Risks: kidney/heart failure, tooth decay, anxiety, depression, substance abuse.

● ________: binge eating without purging, followed by guilt/distress

● ________: extreme restriction of food → very low body weight.

- Distorted body image (seeing oneself as overweight). - Risks: bone loss, heart/kidney failure, menstrual problems, death.

Biological role, Human behavior

_________: Sex is essential for reproduction and

survival of the species.

_________: Sexual activity is not only about

reproduction—it also involves pleasure, intimacy, and

relationships.

Hypothalamus, Limbic system, Humans, Hormones

_____________: Key brain area for motivated behaviors, including sex.

- In rats, damage to the medial preoptic area stops sexual ability but not sexual motivation.

● _________ (amygdala, nucleus accumbens): Important for sexual motivation. Damage reduces desire but not ability.

● _________: Similar patterns—sexual ability and motivation can be separate.

- Example: Erectile dysfunction drugs show motivation and ability can be dissociated.

● _________: Testosterone levels influence sexual motivation in both men and women.

Kinsey’s Research, Kinsey Scale

● Conducted large-scale surveys on sexual behavior. ● Published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953).

● Findings:

- Women are as interested in sex as men.

- Masturbation is common and not harmful.

- Homosexual acts are more common than previously thought.

● Developed the _________ (continuum of sexual

orientation).

● Impact: Opened public discussion on sexuality,

though controversial and criticized for sampling

errors.

______________ (1940s-1950s)

Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution, Masters and Johnson’s Research

● Observed nearly 700 participants and recorded physiological responses during sexual activity.

● Identified the sexual response cycle: (EPOR)

- ______: Arousal begins (erection, lubrication).

- ______: Increased arousal, muscle tension.

- ______: Rhythmic contractions, ejaculation in men.

- ______: Return to unaroused state.

a. Men experience a refractory period (time

before another orgasm).

b. Women can often repeat the cycle quickly.

● Findings also dispelled myths:

- Penis size does not determine sexual pleasure. - The vagina is elastic and adapts to different sizes

____________________ (1960s)

Conversion therapy, Sexual Orientation

● Definition: Emotional and erotic attraction to others.

● Most people identify as heterosexual, but many identify as homosexual or bisexual.

● Research estimates 3–10% of the population Identifies as homosexual.

● Causes:

- Not explained by family or upbringing.

- Evidence points to biological and genetic factors (genes, brain differences, body traits).

● Key point: Sexual orientation is not a choice and cannot be changed.

- “_____________” has been discredited and shown to be harmful.

- Laws in some places (e.g., California) ban such practices.

_________________

Gender Identity

● Definition: A person’s sense of being male, female, or another gender.

● Usually matches biological sex, but not always.

● Gender dysphoria: When someone feels their biological sex does not match their true identity.

- Must last at least 6 months and cause distress to be diagnosed (DSM-5).

● Some individuals transition through clothing, hormone therapy, or surgery to align with their identity.

______________

Sexual orientation, Gender identity

● Attitudes toward sexuality and gender vary across

cultures.

● ___________:

- In the U.S., heterosexuality is seen as the norm.

- In some cultures, homosexual behavior is part of normal development (e.g., boys in parts of New Guinea).

● ___________:

- U.S. culture is largely two-gendered (male/female).

- Other cultures recognize more categories (e.g., kathoey—similar to transgender/intersex).

Emotion

________ - are intense feelings that happen in response to specific experiences. They are usually conscious and intentional (e.g., joy when something good happens, anger when betrayed, fear when threatened).

Moods

_________ - are longer-lasting, less intense states. They don’t always come from a clear event or cause. People may not even notice they are in a mood. LIKE feeling generally irritable or cheerful w/ out knowing why

Physiological arousal, Psychological appraisal, Subjective experience

Components of Emotion

● Emotions involve three parts: (PPS)

1. __________ (body reactions like heart rate, sweating).

2. __________ (how we interpret the situation).

3. __________ (our personal feeling).

● Different people may feel differently in the same situation because of background and culture

James-Lange Theory

__________________

→ Emotions come after body reactions. → Example: You see a snake → heart races → then you feel fear.

Cannon-Bard Theory

______________

→ Emotions and body reactions happen at the same time, but separately.

→ Example: You see a snake → you feel fear and your body reacts simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer

_________________ Two-Factor Theory

→ Emotions = arousal + cognitive label.

→ Example: Snake → body arousal → you interpret it as fear because of the context.

→ Experiment: Men injected with adrenaline felt emotions (anger/euphoria) depending on the behavior of another person in the room.

Cognitive-Mediational Theory

_________________ (Lazarus)

→ Emotions depend on how we appraise (evaluate) a situation.

→ Appraisal happens quickly, often unconsciously, before the emotion.

Zajonc & LeDoux’s, Fast, Slow

___________ Views

→ Some emotions happen instantly, without thought (like fear from a loud noise).

→ LeDoux showed the amygdala processes fear through two pathways:

- ____ route: thalamus → amygdala (quick reaction).

- ____ route: thalamus → cortex → amygdala (more

detailed processing)

Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Amygdala, Hippocampus

● The limbic system is the brain’s emotion center.

● Key parts:

- ________ → triggers the body’s fight-or-flight response.

- ________ → relays sensory information to the amygdala and cortex.

- ________ → processes emotional information, especially fear and anxiety.

- ________ → links emotions with memory and thinking (new memories)

Basolateral complex, Central nucleus

Amygdala

● Made up of two main parts:

- _____________ → connects with sensory areas; attaches emotional meaning to learning and memory.

- _____________ → controls attention and regulates body responses through the hypothalamus and brainstem.

● Animal studies show the amygdala’s role in fear

learning.

- Example: Rat pups learned to fear an odor paired with shock—but only when their mother was absent.

● Early life stress or abuse can change amygdala function, leading to depressive-like behaviors later.

Hippocampus

________________

● Also important for emotional processing.

● In people with PTSD, parts of the hippocampus are smaller, possibly due to reduced growth of new neurons.

● Treatments (medication or therapy) can improve symptoms and even increase hippocampal volume.

Universal Facial Expressions, Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial Expression and Recognition of Emotions

1. Cultural Display Rules • Different cultures have rules about when and how emotions can be shown.

- Example:

• U.S. → People show negative emotions (fear, anger, disgust) both alone and with others. • Japan → People show negative emotions only when alone.

• Cultures that value social harmony often encourage suppressing emotions until the right response is clear.

2. Gender Differences • Research on gender and emotion is mixed. • Some evidence suggests men and women may difer in how they regulate emotions, though findings are not consistent.

3. ____________ • Despite cultural diferences, facial expressions of emotion are universal. • Even blind individuals display the same expressions, showing they are innate. • Charles Darwin first suggested this idea in 1872. • Seven universal emotions with distinct facial expressions:

1. Happiness

2. Surprise

3. Sadness

4. Fear

5. Disgust

6. Contempt

7. Anger

4. ____________ • Facial expressions can influence emotions. • Example: Smiling can make you feel happier. • Research shows Botox (which paralyzes facial muscles) can reduce depression by limiting frowning.

5. Body Language and Other Cues • Emotions are also expressed through voice tone, behavior, and body language. • People are highly sensitive to these cues, even if they don’t consciously notice them.

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS: _______ - ______ - _______ (ESR)

Encoding, Automatic Processing, Effortful Processing

__________ → how we get information into memory → we connect new information to what we already know → two ways:

a. ________ - happens without effort

b. ________ - requires focus and work

Semantic Encoding, Visual Encoding, Acoustic Encoding

Types of Encoding

• _________ → encoding meaning of words. → strongest type → example: remembering words by grouping them into categories.

• _________ → encoding images. → Easier to recall concrete words (car, dog, book) than abstract ones (truth, value).

• _________ → encoding sounds. → example: singing along to an old song, learning the alphabet through rhyme.

Self Reference Efect - we remember best when information relates to ourselves.

Storage, Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory

__________ → keeping encoded information in memory → to reach long-term memory, information passes through three stages:

● ___________

● ___________ (STM)

● ___________ (LTM)

Sensory Memory, Stroop Effect

____________ → Very brief (a few seconds), Holds sight, sounds, tastes, etc.

→ Most sensory input is discarded unless seen as important

→ example: You don’t remember what your professor wore last class.

→ ________: It’s harder to name the color of a word when the word itself spells a different color (e.g., “yellow” written in green ink).

Short-Term Memory

______________ (STM) → Temporary storage, also called working memory.

→ Lasts about 20 seconds

→ Capacity: about 7±2 (George Miller, 1956)

→ Rehearsal (repetition) helps move STM into LTM, also called memory consolidation.

- Example: repeating a phone number until you dial it.

Long-Term Memory

___________ (LTM)

→ Permanent storage, unlimited capacity

→ Some memories are strong (easy recall), others need prompts.

→ example: You may recall “capital of the U.S.” easily, but need hints to remember a restaurant from years ago.