Theories of Criminal Behavior

Just World Hypothesis

The belief that the world is just and that people get what they deserve. Ex - a beaten wife must have done something to provoke her spouse (general) or “i usually get what I deserve” (personal)

Scientific theory of crime

a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena. Terms must be precise. Should provide a general explanation that encompasses and systematically connects many different social, economic, and psychological variables to criminal behaviors and be supported by research

Classical theory

If people realized in advance that severe punishment would follow, regardless of social status or privileges, they would choose not to commit crime. Relies on free will as the core concept

Deterrence theory

Modern version of classical theory. proposes that people will avoid committing crime if the possibility of punishment is great enough. eg - the death penalty

Positive theory

Argues prior experiences and influences determine present behaviors

Conformity Perspective

theoretical position that humans are born basically good and generally try to do the right thing. Humans are creatures of conformity who want to do the right thing. branch of “positive psychology”

Strain theory

Merton - theory that crime and delinquency occur when there is a perceived discrepancy between the materialistic values and goals cherished and held in high esteem by a society and the availability of the legitimate means for reaching these goals. Humans are fundamentally conforming beings, strongly influenced by values and attitudes of society in which they live.

Non-conformist perspective

humans will naturally try to get away with anything they can, including illegal conduct, unless social controls are imposed. Does NOT blame the people for their imperfections

Social Control Theory

crime and delinquency will occur when an individual ties to conventional order/normative standards are weak or largely nonexistent.

Perceives human nature as fundamentally “bad” or at least “imperfect” and the innate tendencies are controlled by society

General theory of crime

Crime and delinquency can be explained largely by deficits in self control and self regulation (AKA self control theory). Contreversial part = (according to the theory) self control is a stable trait that is fully in place in childhood, usually by age 8, and is not likley to change agter that. - *Researchers tested and found that self control can develop and change after the age of 8*

Learning perspective

humans were born neutral and behaviorally a blank slate - subject to developmental changes throughout life. Argues behaviors, beliefs, and tendencies are learned from the social environment

Differential association theory

Criminal behavior is primarliy due to obtaining values and messages from others, including (but not limited to) those who engage with crime.

Critical factors - who the person engages with, how early, long, and frequently, and how personally meaningful the association is.

not an emotional disturbance or innate goodness or badness

“bad company promotes bad behavior”

Social disorganization

the extent to which unfavorable conditions - unemployment, deteriorating infrastructures, unoccupied housing, illegal activities… - exist in a community

Developmental approach

Examines the changes and influences (risk factors) across a person’s lifetime that contribute to the formation of antisocial and criminal behavior or, alternatively, that protect individuals with many risk factors in their lives

Trait

relatively stable and enduring tendency to behave in a particular way across time and place. Belived by some to be the basic building blocks of personality

Disposition

In persionality theory, a term that signifies internal or personality determinants of human behavior. These theorists look to inner conflicts, beliefs, personal needs, traits, or attitudes to explain behavior

Murder and nonnegligent manslaughter

the willful (nonnegligent) killing of one human being by another

Robbery

the taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of the person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear

Aggravated assualt

An unlawful attack by one person on anotehr for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury; attempts to inflict injury are also included

Burglary

The unlawful entry into any structure to commit a felony or theft

Larceny-theft

the unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away with of property from the possession or constructive possession of another; including crimes like shoplifting, pocket picking, purse snatching, thefts from motor vehicles, and bike thefts

Arson

any willing or malicious buring or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling, public building, motor vehicle, aircraft, or personal property of another

Motor vehicle theft

theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle, defined as a self-propelled vehicle that runs on land surfaces, not rails.

Simple assault

assault in which no weapon is used and which does not result in serious or aggravated injury to victim

forgery and counterfeiting

making, altering, or possessing, with intent to defraud, anything false in the semeblance of that which is true

fraud

fraudulent conversion and obtaining money or property by false pretenses

embezzlement

misappropriation or misapplication of money entrusted to one’s care, custody, or control

Clearance rate

the proportion of reported crimes that have been “solved” through the arrest and turning over of at least one person for prosecution. Also through exceptional means such as teh death of the person about to be arrested

Dark Figure

The number of crimes that go unreported in official crime data reports

Hierarchy rule

In the UCR, the rule that requires only the most serious crime in a series be reported in the crime stats. The exception is arson, which is always reported

Intimate partner violence

Crimes committed agains persons by their current or former spouses of sig others

Status offenses

A class of illegal behavior that only persons with certain characteristics or status can commit. Used almost exclusively to refer to the behavior of juviniles. Ex - running away from home, violating curfew, buying alcohol, skipping school

Antisocial Behavior

Clinical term reserved for serious habitual behavior, especially that involving direct harm to others

Developmental Pathway

Various tracks individuals follow that lead to antisocial behavior. Researchers began by identifying two pathways but have found ev for more

Risk Factors

Characteristics or experiences that place children at risk for antisocial or criminal activity

protective factors

personal characteristics or experiences that can shield children and adolescents from serious antisocial behavior

Cumulative Risk Model

Suggests that an accumulation of risk factors and insufficient protective factors lead to antisocial and criminal activity in children and adolescents

Developmental Cascade Model

Both the accumulation of risk factors and their interaction lead to criminal activity, in the absences of protective factors

Parental Practices

Methods employed by parents to meet some specific goal they would like to have their children achieve

Parental Styles

Seemingly nongoal-directed approaches displayed by parents, although the goals may be implicit

Authoritarian Style of Parenting

The approach to parenting that sets a very rigid structure on the family setting and allows little decision making by the child

Permissive Parenting Style

A relaxed parenting style characterized by few demands, controls, or limits

Authoritative Parenting Style

The approach to parenting that sets firm rules yets encourages the development of autonomy in the chidl

Neglectful Parenting Style

Style of parenting in which parents are detatched and uninvolved in the childs activities

Enmeshed Style

A parental style in which the parent takes extraordinary control of the child’s like including imposing rigid rules and seeing even trivial, minor behaviors as problematic. Typically results in harsh punishment but inconsistent discipline. Opposite of Lax style

Lax Style

A parental style that does not respond sufficiently to problemativ or antisocial behavior in children but rather allows it to occur without disciplinary action. Opposite of Enmneshed style and similar to permissive

Parental Monitoring

Supervision by parents of their children’s activities. Poor = strong factor for delinquency

Attachment Theory

A theory that states infants have a strong need to establish close emotional bonds with significant others in their social environments. According to this theory, the nature of this emotional bond determines the quality of social relationships later in life.

Affective empathy

An emotional response characterized by feelings of concern for another and a desire to alleviate a person’s distress. (the ability to experience another’s emotions)

Cognitive empathy

the ability to understand a person from their frame of reference or POV rather than simply from one’s own POV (the ability to understand another’s emotions)

Theory of mind (ToM)

The capacity to recognize the thoughts and feelings of other people

Psychometric approach

the perspective that human characteristics, attributes, and traits can be measured and quantified

Psychometric Intelligence (PI)

A more contemporary designation of intelligence as measured by intelligence of IQ tests. However, the term is not yet widely used in comparison with “IQ”

Biopsychologists

Psychologists who study the biological aspects of behavior to determine which genetic and neurobiological variables play a part and to what extent. They generally see human behavior as the result of complex interaction between the individual’s neuropsychological makeup and the social environment

Self-regulation

the capacity to control and alter one’s behavior AND emotions

executive function

higher order mental abilities involved in goal-directed behavior. They include organized behavior, memory, inhibition process, and planning strategies

Neuroplasticity

the ability of the brain to change and develop new neural connections throughout life

Behavioral Genetics

Examines the role genes play in the formation and development of behavior. Distinguished genetic from environmental influences

Molecular genetics

studies the structure and function of genes at the molecular level

Concordance

A term used in genetics to represent the degree to which related pairs of subjects both show a particular behavior or condition. Usually expressed in percentages

MAOA and MAOA-L Gene

Gene that is believed to play an instrumental role in antisocial behavior, either preventing it or in low form contributing to such behavior

Termperament

A natural mood disposition determained largely by genetic and biological influences

behaviorism

a perspective that focuses on observable, measurable behavior and argues that the social environment and learning are the key determinants of human behavior

Classical conditioning

the process of learning to respond to a formerly neutral stimulus that has been paired with another that already elicits a response.

Situationism

a theoretical perspective that argues the environemnt stimuli control behavior

reductionism

a reasearch approach that argues that in order to understand highly complex events or phenomenon, one must start examining the simplest parts first

operant conditioning

a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or diminished by its consequences (instrumental learning)

Social Learning theory

theory that human behavior based on learning from watching others in the social environment. This leads to an individual’s development of their own perceptions, thoughts, experiences, competencies, and values

Expectancy theory

a theory of motivation that takes into account both the expectnacy of achieving a particular goal and the value placed on it

Observational learning (modeling)

the process by which individuals learn patterns of behavior by observing another person perform the action

Differential Association reinforcement (DAR) theory

States people learn deviatn behavior through the reinforcements they recieve from the social environment (theory combines Skinner’s behaviorism and Sutherland’s differential association)

Discriminative stimuli

social signals or gestures transmitted by subcultural or peer groups to indicate whether certain kinds of behavior will be rewarded or punished within a particular social context

Frustration

an aversive internal state of arousal that occurs when one is prevented from responding in a way that previously produced rewards (or that one believes would produce rewards)

Socialized offender

a person who violates the law consistently becuase of learning the behavioral pattern from their social environment

individual offender

in Berkowitz’s theory, the person who offends after a series of frustrations and unmet needs

Fundamental Attribution bias

a tendency to underestimate the importance of situational determinants and to overestimate the importance of personality or dispositional factors in identifying the causes of human behavior

self serving bias

a tendency to attribute positive things that happen to us to our abilities and personalities and to attribute negative events to some cause outside ourselves and beyond our control

Crimes of obedience

illegal acts that are committed under the order of someone in authority

Deindividuation

a process by which individuals feel they cannot be identified, primarily because they are disguised or are subsumed within a group

commonly used to explain expressions of collective behaviors (violent crowds, lynch mobs), as well as widespread social attrocities (such as genocide)

people might be more violent when their identity is hidden

Cognitive Learning

the acquisition and retention of a mental representation of information, and the use of this representation as the basis of behavior

More disengagement

the process of freeing oneslef from one’s own moral standards in order to act against those standards. the unacceptable conduct is usually undertaken under orders from someone higher in authority or under high social pressure

Passive Aggressive Behaviors

Hostile behaviors that do not directly inflict phsycial harm, such as refusing to speak to someone against whom one holds a grudge

reactive-impulsive aggression

spontaneous aggression, possibly in response to provocation. also referred to as reactive aggression or hostile aggression

controlled-instrumental aggression

the type of aggression that is planned and is used to accomplish a specific purpose

Aggression

Behavior characterized by the intent to harm others or destroy objects

Violence

destructive physical aggression intentionally directed at harming other persons or things

Territoriality

the tendency to attack violators of one’s personal space

Ritualized aggresion

the symbolic display of aggressive intentions or strength without actual phsycial combat or conflict

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

the theory that frustration leads to aggressive behavior

When there is a block to get something they need, frustration happens, for some that frustration leads to aggression

person must have been expecting or anticipating the attainment of a goal or achievement

Weapons effect

Suggestion that the mere presence of a weapon leads a witness or victim to concentrate on the weapon itself rather than other features of the crime

Cognitive-neoassociation theory

During the earlier stages, an averive event produces a negative affect (Discomfort). the negative affect may be due to physical pain or psychological discomfort.

Excitation transfer theory

theory that psychological arousal can generalize from one situation to another based on the assumption that psychological arousal, however produced, disipates slowly over time

Displaced Aggression theory

the theory that some aggression is directed at the target as a replacment for the individual who is the real source of the provocation

Rumination

the focused attention on one’s own thoughts and feelings that, if excessive, can lead to aggression agaisnt others

Cognitive Scripts model

huesmann’s theory that social behavior in general and aggressive behavior in particular are controlled largely by cognitive scripts learned throguht daily experiences

Hostile attribution model

cognitive model of aggression. the tendency to percieve hostile intent in others when it is lacking