Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive Systems Comprehensive Reviewer

Vocabulary practice flashcards defining essential terminology, anatomical structures, physiological functions, and clinical terms across the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

Alimentary Canal

The continuous muscular digestive tract through which food passes, comprising the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anal canal.

Vestibule

The anatomical region of the mouth located between the cheeks or lips and the teeth.

Oral Cavity Proper

The inner main region of the mouth bounded anteriorly by the lips, posteriorly by the throat/oropharynx, laterally by the cheeks, superiorly by the hard palate, and inferiorly by the tongue.

Uvula

A curved muscular fold hanging downward from the soft palate that reinforces the nasal seal during swallowing and aids in speech.

Salivary Amylase

An enzyme present in saliva that initiates the chemical digestion and breakdown of carbohydrates.

Epiglottis

A cartilaginous structure in the laryngopharynx that acts as a protective trapdoor over the larynx to prevent food from entering the airway during swallowing.

Peristalsis

Wavelike muscular contractions that transport food boluses or urine through hollow tubular organs such as the esophagus and ureters.

Chyme

The semi-fluid mixture of digested food bolus, hydrochloric acid ($\text{HCl}$), and enzymes produced by the stomach's mechanical churning and chemical breakdown.

Rugae

Mucosal folds found along the inner wall of the stomach that allow it to expand as food accumulates.

Hepatocytes

The functional cell types that make up the structural lobules of the liver.

Falciform Ligament

The ligamentous structure that separates the large right lobe of the liver from the smaller left lobe.

Bile

A digestive fluid produced by hepatocytes in the liver and stored/concentrated in the gallbladder that emulsifies large fat globules into smaller droplets.

Acinar Cells

The exocrine secretory cells of the pancreas that synthesize and secrete digestive enzymes (pancreatic amylase, lipase, proteases, nucleases) and neutralizing bicarbonate.

Islets of Langerhans

The endocrine cell clusters within the pancreas containing beta cells (secreting insulin), alpha cells (secreting glucagon), delta cells, and F cells.

Villi

Microscopic, finger-like projections along the mucosa of the small intestine that increase surface area for nutrient and water absorption.

Pectinate Line

The anatomical dividing line in the anal canal marking the junction where the internal mucosa transitions into external skin.

Urinary System

The organ system responsible for removing waste products and excess water from blood, maintaining balance of water, salts, minerals, blood pressure, and acid-base equilibrium, and eliminating urine.

Kidneys

Two bean-shaped organs located near the back of the abdominal cavity that filter blood, remove waste, excess water, and salts, produce urine, and regulate blood pressure.

Internal Anatomy of the Kidney

The gross structural organization of the kidney featuring the outer renal cortex, inner renal medulla, renal pyramids, renal columns, minor and major calyces, and the renal pelvis draining into the ureter.

Nephron

The structural and functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood and forming urine, consisting of a renal corpuscle and renal tubules.

Ureters

Two narrow tubular structures that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder via muscular peristaltic contractions.

Urinary Bladder

A hollow, muscular organ that expands as urine accumulates and stores urine temporarily prior to elimination.

Urethra

The tube carrying urine out of the body from the bladder, serving solely for urination in females, while carrying urine or semen at different times in males.

Glomerular Filtration

The initial step in urine formation where blood is filtered across the glomerulus, allowing water and small dissolved substances into Bowman's capsule.

Tubular Reabsorption

The urine formation process by which essential substances—including glucose, certain salts, and most water—are moved from the renal tubules back into the bloodstream.

Tubular Secretion

The process during urine formation in which additional metabolic wastes and excess ions are transferred directly from blood into renal tubules.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

An infectious condition affecting one or more components of the urinary system.

Kidney Stones

Hard mineral and salt crystalline deposits that precipitate and form within the kidneys.

Kidney Failure

A pathological state in which the kidneys lose the ability to adequately filter metabolic wastes from the bloodstream.

Urinary Incontinence

The unintentional or involuntary leakage of urine.

Gametes

Specialized haploid reproductive cells produced by the gonads, specifically sperm cells in males and egg cells (ova) in females.

Testes

The primary male reproductive organs that produce sperm cells and the androgen hormone testosterone.

Scrotum

The external pouch of skin and muscle that encloses the testes and regulates their temperature for viable spermatogenesis.

Epididymis

A coiled duct adjacent to each testis where newly produced sperm are stored and mature.

Vas Deferens

The excretory duct that propels and transports mature sperm from the epididymis toward the urethra.

Seminal Vesicles

Accessory male glands that secrete a nutrient-rich alkaline fluid containing fructose to nourish sperm cells.

Prostate Gland

A gland surrounding the male urethra that adds an activating fluid to semen to support sperm motility and function.

Penis

The male external organ that introduces and delivers semen into the female reproductive tract during sexual intercourse.

Ovaries

The primary female gonads that produce egg cells (ova) and endocrine sex hormones including estrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian Tubes

Ciliated muscular ducts that convey the ovum from the ovary toward the uterus; the typical site where fertilization occurs.

Uterus

The hollow, thick-walled muscular organ where a fertilized ovum implants and develops into an embryo and fetus during pregnancy.

Endometrium

The specialized mucosal inner lining of the uterus that thickens throughout the menstrual cycle to prepare for embryonic implantation.

Cervix

The narrow, inferior cylindrical neck of the uterus that opens directly into the vagina.

Vagina

The muscular canal extending from the cervix to the outside of the body that receives sperm during copulation and acts as the birth canal during parturition.

Ovulation

The rupture of an ovarian follicle and release of a mature secondary oocyte (egg cell) from the ovary, typically around day 14 of a 28-day cycle.

Estrogen

A female steroid hormone that promotes female reproductive development and drives the rebuilding and thickening of the uterine lining during the follicular phase.

Progesterone

A steroid hormone synthesized by the corpus luteum during the luteal phase that maintains and prepares the endometrial lining for implantation.

Menstruation

The initial phase of the menstrual cycle in which the unneeded functional layer of the endometrium is shed and discharged through the vagina.

Follicular Phase

The menstrual cycle phase marked by ovarian follicle maturation and rising estrogen levels to restore and proliferate the uterine lining.

Luteal Phase

The post-ovulatory phase during which the corpus luteum secretes progesterone to maintain the endometrium; if pregnancy does not occur, hormone levels drop, triggering menses.

Fertilization

The biological process involving the fusion of a haploid sperm cell with a haploid egg cell to create a diploid single cell.

Zygote

The initial diploid single cell that results from the union of male and female gametic nuclei at fertilization.

Embryo

The early stage of human prenatal development following cleavage of the zygote up until the start of the fetal stage.

Fetus

The developing human organism from the end of the embryonic stage until birth.

Implantation

The physiological embedding and attachment of the developing blastocyst/embryo into the maternal endometrium.

Placenta

A temporary fetomaternal organ that mediates physiological exchange of respiratory gases ($\text{O}_2$/$\text{CO}_2$), nutrients, and wastes between maternal and fetal circulations.