ANTH 210 - Exam 2 - Winking

Reciprocal Alturism

Give now receive later; Asymmetry of cost and benefit; Must identify & remember cheaters

Indirect Reciprocity

Reputation as giver known by others; Decision to cooperate based on partners reputation; Concern for display

Strong Reciprocity

Predisposition to cooperate even when there is no benefit doing so

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Foraging

Complete or near-complete reliance on hunted, fished, or gathered foods

Importance of foraging

original subsistence strategy, present around the globe

Social characteristics associated with foragers:

- typical band size of about 25 people

- centered around kinship

-mobile with few possessions

- fission/fusion

- Egalitarian

The Original Affluent Society

A theory postulating that hunter-gatherers were the original affluent society.

Horticulture

Small-scale subsistence-level farming, often supplemented with domesticated animals, hunting, fishing, and gathering

Fertile Crescent

A region where agriculture and early human civilizations like the Sumer and Ancient Egypt flourished due to inundations from the surrounding Tigris, Nile, and Euphrates Rivers

"origin of horticulture"

Slash & Burn

Another name for shifting cultivation, so named because fields are cleared by slashing the vegetation and burning the debris.

Social impact of agricultural revolution:

Humans began controlling agriculture for themselves

- Increase in sedentism

- Increase in population densities

- Ownership

- Greater societal complex

Advantages of agricultural revolution

- More efficient extraction of calories

- More efficient use of land

- Greater food stability

- Increased reproductive rate

Disadvantages of agricultural revolution

- Less varied diets

- Increase in malnutrition rates

- Disease

- Class division

Pastoralism

Subsistence strategy based on the herding of large animals

Examples: cattle, sheep, goats, camels, reindeer, yak

Ecological characteristics of pastoralists habitats:

ecologies not conducive to horticulture

Traits desired in pastoral animals

- Hardy

- Herdable

- Breedable

- Alternative uses (wool, milk, pack animals, riding)

Lactose Intolerance

The inability to completely digest the milk sugar lactose

70% of worlds population is lactose intolerant

Humans are the only species that drinks milk made from another species

Intensive Agriculture

High levels of input and output per cubic unit of agricultural land, also boosted productivity

Cultivation Continuum

The spectrum of cultivation strategies from horticulture to agriculture

Major technological innovations that allow intensive agriculture

- irrigation

- animals of burden and plows

- terraces

Social characteristics associated with intensive agriculture

- Large, dense population

- Complex, formal social systems

- Highly stratified

- Specialization

Generalized Reciprocity

Exchange between closely related people; no interest in material gain; a return exchange is not necessary; common in foraging societies

example: a parent giving their child food/money/time/energy

Balanced Reciprocity

Equal exchange of goods and services among people of equal status; return is expected within a certain period of time; failing to return may cause social relations to be harmed; less personal exchange to form relationships

Potlatch

an opulent ceremonial feast among the tribes of the North Pacific Coast of North America at which possessions are given away or destroyed to display wealth or enhance prestige

Political system

System by which social power is distributed in order to deal with challenges arising from group living

Power

The ability to exercise one's will over another's

Band

Most common among hunter-gatherers; small loosely defined group with no formal leadership; 50-500; problems solved informally; Egalitarian distribution of wealth

Headman

(Band) Informal leader based on personality traits; desire to follow

Tribe

Common among horticulturist and pastoralist; political system organized around kinship; temporary multi-local structures; leadership roles largely informal; Egalitarian distribution of wealth; groups can come together if needed

Big Man

(Tribe) Informal leader based on personality traits, social support, and ability to create surplus to give away; temporary authority to organize multiple communities

Chiefdom

Common among horticulturist and agriculturist; permanent political offices, ruler of multiple groups

Chief

(Chiefdom) Formal leader based on personality, inheritance, and support; permanent position that must be filled; formal direction of production and distribution

States

Associated with intensive agriculture or industry; autonomous, centralizes political entities w/ administrative bureaucracy; highly specialized populace with separate classes and professions; defined territories

King, Emperor, or President

(State) Formal leader based on personality, inheritance and support; permanent position that must be filled

Autocracy

a system of government by one person with absolute power.

Includes monarchy and dictatorship

Oligarchy

A government ruled by a few powerful people

Democracy

rule by many/majority

example: Athens, Rome, U.S.

Socialism

- economic system

- can own personal property

- allows capitalism to exist

Examples: China, Canada, Norway

Communism

- economic and political system

- cannot own personal property

- seeks to get rid of capitalism

Example: North Korea

Weber's Dimensions of Social Stratification

1. Class (the economic dimension)

2. Status or Prestige (the cultural and social dimension)

3. Party or Power (the political dimension)

Hegemony

Leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others

Consanguineal Kin

Biological relations, blood relatives

example: mother, sister, brother

Affinal Kin

Relatives through marriage

example: father-in-law

Lineal Kin

Direct ancestors or descendants; direct line

examples: mother, father, grandfather

Collateral Kin

Kin descended from a common ancestor but not in a direct ascendant or descendant line

examples: sibling, niece, uncle

Cross Cousins

sibling of the parent is the opposite sex of them, their kids

Example: child of mother's brother or father's sister

Parallel Cousins

sibling of the parent is the same sex of the parent

Example: child of mother's sister or father's brother

Family of Orientation

Family you were born into involuntarily

Family of Procreation

The family you create; the family created when a couple's first child is born

Lineage

a unilineal descent group based on demonstrated descent

Clan

a unilineal descent group based on stipulated descent

"Members of a clan do not demonstrate how they descend from their common ancestor, the merely claim or "stipulate" their common ancestry/descent"

Kin selection

natural selection in favor of behavior by individuals that may decrease their chance of survival but increases that of their kin (who share a proportion of their genes).

Kinship Diagram legend

: Circle = woman

: Triangle = man

: = is marriage

: -- = sibling

: Z = sister

: MM = maternal grandmother

: BS: man's parallel nephew

: MBD= woman's female maternal cross cousin

: FZSS or FZDS= man's male paternal cross 1st cousin once removed

What is the coefficient of relatedness?

proportion of genes two individuals share through common ancestry

Coefficients of relatedness (r)

parent/child: 0.5

Sibling: 0.5

uncle/nephew: 0.25

grandparent/grandchild: 0.25

Cousin: 0.125 (⅛)

Half sibling: 0.25

Incest Avoidance

Prevention of the deleterious effects of inbreeding

Westermarck Effect

Avoiding romance with the ones you grew up with

Matrilineal Descent

Descent traced through the mother's line

Patrilineal Descent

Descent traced through the father's line

Ambilineal Descent

Descent traced through both parent's line

Monogamy

Marriage to one person only; most common worldwide

Polygyny

Marriage to multiple wives

Polyandry

Marriage to multiple males

Harem Defense Polygyny

Males defend harem of females

Resource Defense Polygyny

Males defend resources desired by females

Female Choice Polygyny

Females converge on sexiest males

ex: peacocks

Sororal Polygyny

Sisters that share a husband

Fraternal Polyandry

Brothers that share a wife

Levirate

Custom by which a widow marries the brother of her deceased husband

Sororate

Custom by which a widower marries the sister of the deceased wife

Partible Paternity

When many dads contribute to the formation of the baby; unknown who actual father is so all potential candidates pitch in with raising the baby

(practiced in polyandry)

Major caretakers other than mother

- 3 generational - grandmothers

- Pair-bonding- fathers

- Compound fertility - older siblings

- Social living - other kin (female/avanculate)

Maasai marital practices

- arranged is the most common

- woman is insulted by other women when she first comes to the husband's village

- patrilocal and polygyny