A&P 2 Unit 3 Study Review

What type of digestion happens in…? (Ch.26)

• Mouth

• Stomach

Mouth: Mechanical/Chemical: Salivary Amylase (Starch)

Stomach: Mechanical/Chemical: Proteins

Stomach Process: Pepsinogen → HCL → (Pepsin) Breakdown of proteins

Know these terms (Ch.26)

• Mastication

• Peristalsis

• Chyme

(Added)

• Bolus

• Deglutination

Mastication - Chewing

Peristalsis - (Involuntary) smooth muscle contraction

Chyme - When it reaches duodenum

Bolus - a chewed food mass

Deglutination - Swallowing

Phases of swallowing (Ch.26)

1) Voluntary PH. → Oral cavity

2) Pharyngeal PH. → Involuntary

(B/w uvula & Epiglottis)

3) Esophageal PH. → Involuntary

What are the accessory digestive organs (Ch.26)

• Teeth

• Tongue

• Liver: makes bile, helps to emulify “breakdown” lipids

• Gallbladder

• Salivary glands: Parotid, Sublingual, Submandibular glands (add to the digestive tract)

• Pancreas: adding a lot of enzymes

What is the main function of the.. (Ch.26)

• Epiglottis

• Large intestine

Epiglottis: Prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing, to allow food to go into esophagus

Large intestine: Absorb water, to elimate wastes for transport to make vitamins

How do we active pepsinogen?

Hydrochloric acid (HCL)

Know the Secretory cells of the stomach and what they produce (found in notes) (Ch.26)

Mucus neck cells - Mucus

Parietal cells - Hydrochloric acid (HCL)

Chief cells - Pepsinogen

What is absorbed into the lymphatic system in the final step? (Ch.26)

fatty acids and Glycerol

are absorbed into the lymphatic system through lacteals.

“a single villus contains?” - a lacteal (PQ.)

Know the functions of the liver (Ch.26)

Metabolism - (Catabolism & Anabolism)

Storage

• Carbs → Glycogen

• Fats → Lipoprotein

• Proteins → Processed → (e.g.) Albumin → Blood (Plasma proteins)

Detoxtification

• Cytochrome P450 enzymes

  • Not super specific, Reacts w/ a lot

  • Cause decrease of drug efficacy

Bile production - Absorption of fat

Mouth = ?

Stomach = ? (Ch.26)

Mouth = Carbohydrates

Stomach = Proteins

What do these digestive terms do? What hormone from the duodenum stimulates pancreatic enzymes? What does it release?

• Duodenum

• Jejunum

• Ileum

Small intestine secretion:

• Cholecystokinin (CCK)

  ↓ Causes gallbladder to contract

• Gallbladder (Contract)

  ↓ Release

• Bile → Digest fats/lipids

Duodenum:

Most digestion happens

Jejunum:

Most absorption happens

Ileum:

• Important absorption occurs here

  • (ex. vitamin D & K)

What is the portal triad (Ch.26)

“What makes the portal triad?”

• Portal vein

• Proper Hepatic artery

• Common hepatic duct

Trace of bile as it leaves the liver and eventually turns into Bile Salts (found in notes) (Ch.26)

1. Bile is made in the liver

2. Travels down the common hepatic duct

3. Moves into the cystic duct

4. Stored in the gallbladder

   When fat enters the duodenum, CCK is released, causing the gallbladder to contract

5. Bile exits via the cystic duct

6. Travels down the common bile duct

7. Enters the duodenum to emulsify fats

8. In the ileum, bile salts are reabsorbed and recycled back to the liver; Fats are absorbed into the lymphatic system

Muscles involved in the anal sphincter (Ch.26)

Internal: Anal sphincter

• Smooth muscle; Involuntary

External: Anal sphincter

• Skeletal muscle; voluntary

What is Celiac Disease and what other conditions or diseases are often seen along it? (Ch.26)

Celiac Disease:

• Autoimmune disorder

Conditions/ diseases seen:

• Type 1 Diabetes

• Thyroid disorders

• Down syndrome (more common)

What can small intestines cells can’t eat? What can it eat? (Ch.27)

Small intestine cells:

CAN’T eat = Glucose

CAN eat = Glutamine (They only eat this)

What are vitamins? (Ch.27)

Organic, found in all major food groups, but only in small amounts

Water soluble vitamins (8) (Ch.27)

Water soluble vitamins → Dissolves in H₂O, easily absorbs in blood from GT tract

- B vitamins: (Matching Questions!!)

1) Vit. B₁ - (Thiamine) → Carb. metabolism

2) Vit. B₂ - (Riboflavin) -Nutrient oxi.

3) Vit. B₃ - (Niacin) - Nutrient oxi.

4) Vit. B₅ - (Pantothenic Acid) - Nutrient oxi.

5) Vit. B₇ - (Biotin) - Nutrient oxi.

6) Vit. B₆ - (Pyridoxine) → Protein metabolism

7) Vit. B₉ - (Folic acid) → RBC Formation, Prevents Spinabifida

8) Vit. B₁₂ → RBC formation, Nerve cell maintenance

Vit. C. → Antioxidant, Collagen formation

Lipid soluble vitamins (4) (Ch.27)

Fat-Soluble Vit. → Dissolves in fat, enter lymph from within micelles (Spherical lipid molecule)

(Matching questions!!)

1.) Vit. D → Absorption of Ca²⁺ from GI tract

2.) Vit. E → Protect cell membrane

3.) Vit. K → Needed for making blood clotting proteins

4.) Vit. A → Precursor for visual pigment

Major minerals (7) (Ch.27)

Minerals: Inorganic, more (>) of 100 mL/day

1.) Calcium (Ca²⁺)

• Formation of bones & teeth

2.) Chloride (Cl)

• Produce HCL acid in the stomach, Deficiency leads to muscle cramps

3.) Magnesium (Mg²⁺)

• Cofactor for metabolic pathway, Deficiency leads to muscle weakness & nervous system problems

4.) Phosphorus (P)

• Synthesis of DNA & bones, Deficiency leads to loss of appetite + anxiety & fatigue

5.) Potassium (K+)

• Regulation of heartbeat & membrane potential, deficiency leads to muscle weakness

6.) Sodium (Na+)

• Regulation of body fluids & maintaining PH balance, increased levels lead to hypertension

7.) Sulfur (S)

• Component of certain Amino acids (AA)

Trace minerals: iron and zinc (Ch.27)

Trace minerals: Requires less (<) of 100 mg/day

3.) Zinc → “Immunity & Wound healing; Changes in skin” eyes, hair loss, diarrhea

4.) Iron → “Component of hemoglobin”; anemia, weakness, fatigue

Types of lipids (Ch.27)

1) Triglycedes:

• Saturated

  • No double bonds, solid at room temp.

• Unsaturated

  • One double bond, liquid at room temp.

• Polyunsaturated

  • 2 or more double bonds, liquid at room temp.

2) Cholesterol

3) Lipoproteins

Types of proteins (Ch.27)

• Also what is an enzyme?

Types of proteins:

• Synthesized from 20 different Amino Acids

  • 8 essential

  • 12 synthesized by the body

How is it stored?

• Enzymes

  • An enzyme is a protein that speeds up chemical reactions without the body being used up or changed in the process

• Hormones

• Transport O₂

With proteins, what is complete & incomplete proteins?

Complete proteins:

Contain all 8 essential amino acids (AA)

Incomplete proteins:

Lack 1 or more of the 8 essential amino acids (AA)

Types of carbohydrates (Ch.27)

• Also what is starch, Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose

Starch = A long group of glucose molecules (monomer)

Maltose = Glucose + Glucose

Lactose = Galactose + Glucose

Sucrose = Fructose + Glucose

Essential vs. Nonessential (Ch.27)

Essential: Must be consumed + contained

Lipid-soluble - Essential

1. Vit. D => Absorption of Ca2+ from G.I. Tract

2. Vit. E => Protect Cell Membrane

3. Vit. K => Blood clotting proteins

4. Vit. A => Precursor for visual pigment

Water-soluble -Essential

-B Vit. (all 8)

-Vit. C => Antioxidant, collagen formation.

Non-Essential: Cofactors the body can produce or recycle as needed, can be synthesized

1. NADH & FADH2 => occur in citric Acid. (high energy molecules)

Organic vs. Nonorganic (Ch.27)

Vitamins => Organic, (contain carbon) found in all major food groups, but only in small amounts.

Minerals => Nonorganic, do not contain carbon

How are Lipids absorbed from the GI tract? (Ch.27)

Into the lymphatics (Lacteals)

Lymphatics capillaries = Lacteals

Functions of the liver (Ch.27)

• Metabolism

• Storage

• Detoxtification

• Bile production

Blood sugar terms and valves (Ch.27)

Fasting (no food for - 2-hrs):

Glucose is 80-90mg/dL of blood

After meal:

Glucose is 120-140mg/dL, After 2hrs it returns

Prolonged levels:

Hyperglycemia = 120⁺mg/dL (Above)

Hypoglycemia = < 70mg/dL (Below)

Hypoglycemic shock = < 50mg/dL (Below)

Insulin Secretion (Ch.27)

• What is the role of Ca2+ in this?

Once Ca²⁺ is inside, it binds into the vesicles inside the Beta cells which cause a release of Insulin into the blood

Mechanism of insulin in the blood (Ch.27)

• What happens the GULT transporter in the different types of cells

Insulin-dependent cells: GLUT inside cell

Liver/Brain-nondependent: GLUT on cell surface (membrane)

What does Glucagon do (Ch.27)

Glucagon:

• Produced to decrease glucose

• Produced by pancreas

• Acts on Liver → causes breakdown of glycogen

  • (PQ!) The breakdown of glycogen to glucose is = glycogenolysis

* Made by Alpha cells of the pancreas, increases blood glucose levels *

What is metabolism, anabolism, catabolism (Ch.27)

Metabolism: is the sum of all chemical reactions that keep you alive.

• Proteins, fats, carbs, nucleic acids

Anabolism: Building up of molecules

• Ex. Building muscle; requires energy

Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules

Ex. Cellular respiration (CR)

“Catabolism fuels anabolism.”

Steps of Cellular Respiration (Ch.27)

1. Glycolysis (In cytoplasm)

2. Intermediate (no ATP)

3. Citric cycle (CAC) / Krebs cycle (In matrix)

4. Electron transport chain (ETC) (On inner membrane)

Where do we get energy in cellular respiration? (Ch.27)

Breakdown of Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) through cellular respiration

Chemical formula for Glucose (Ch.27)

C₆ H₁₂ O₆

How many ATP are made at each step of Cellular Respiration and total (Ch.27)

1) Glycolysis

• 2 ATP

• 2 e^- carriers

2) Intermediate

• (No ATP)

• 2 e^- carriers

3) Citric acid cycle/Krebs cycle

• 2 ATP

• 8 e^- carriers

4) Electron Transport Chain

• Result in 28 ATP total (26-28) from NADH and FADH₂

• 32 ATP from 1 glucose

Know e- carriers and how many ATP they result in (Ch.27)

E^- Carriers:

NaDH: 2.5 ATP

FADH₂: 1.5 ATP

Result in: 26-28 ATP (In total: 28 ATP)

What is ATP synthase and where it is found (Ch.27)

ATP synthase:

It’s pumping hydrogen/protons ions into the matrix

Found:

Inner membrane

What is the role of O₂ in the e-Transport Chain? (Ch.27)

O₂ is the final e^- receptor & you make H₂O

What are the alternatives that can be substituted for Glucose or somewhere in Cellular Respiration (Ch.27)

Alternatives: (Exchanges)

Proteins (Amino Acids) → Pyruvate

Fat (Lipid) → Fatty acid → Acetyl - COA

Fat (Lipid) → Glycerol → Glucose

Know the 1st and 2nd Laws of thermodynamics (Ch.3)

1st law of thermodynamics:

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed it only changes into a different form

2nd law of thermodynamics:

No energy conversion is 100% efficient; some of it comes off as heat