Biotechnology, Cell Division, Mitosis, and Meiosis

A comprehensive vocabulary review set containing 50 flashcards covering biotechnology tools, cell cycle regulation, mitosis, and meiosis based on Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 lecture notes.

Biotech

The use of technology to modify organisms, cells, and their molecules to achieve practical benefits.

Genetic engineering

The manipulation of an organism's genetic material by adding, deleting, or transplanting genes from one organism to another in ways that do not normally occur.

Four tools of biotech

The foundational biotechnology techniques: chop up DNA from a donor species, amplify small samples into more useful quantities, insert DNA pieces into bacterial cells or viruses, and grow separate colonies containing donor DNA.

Restriction enzymes

Enzymes used in the chop step of biotechnology to isolate a specific gene of interest.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A laboratory technique used in biotechnology to amplify small samples of DNA into larger, more useful quantities.

Plasmid

A separate, circular piece of DNA found in a bacterial cell that is used to transfer DNA from one organism to another.

Gene library

A collection of separate bacterial or viral colonies produced during the grow step, each carrying a piece of donor DNA.

CRISPR

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Plaindromic Repeats; a precise and efficient gene editing system used to modify genomes.

Cas9

The specific enzyme utilized in the CRISPR system to cut and edit genomic DNA.

Recombinant DNA

A DNA molecule formed when two different DNA sequences are combined within the same nucleus.

Gene therapy

A therapeutic approach that involves altering or changing an individual's genes.

Telomeres

Sections of non-coding, repetitive DNA in eukaryotic cells that serve as protective caps on chromosome tips and shorten with each round of division.

Cancer

A disease state resulting from telomere rebuilding combined with uncontrolled cell division.

Binary fission

The method of division used exclusively by bacteria where an exact duplicate of the circular chromosome is made before the cell splits into two identical cells.

Cell cycle

The regular sequence of alternating growth and division activities that a somatic cell normally undergoes.

Somatic cells

Body cells that form the structural tissues of a multicellular organism.

Gametes

Haploid reproductive sex cells (such as sperm and egg cells) produced via meiosis.

Interphase

The phase during which a cell spends the majority of its life, consisting of Gap 1, S Phase, and Gap 2.

Gap 1 (G1)

The initial subphase of interphase dedicated to cell growth.

S Phase

The DNA synthesis subphase of interphase where DNA replication occurs just prior to mitosis.

Gap 2 (G2)

The subphase of interphase that follows DNA synthesis, during which the cell makes final preparations for division.

Mitotic phase

The phase of the cell cycle during which the cell divides its nucleus and cytoplasm.

DNA helicase

The enzyme that binds and unwinds DNA at the origin of replication site, creating a replication fork.

DNA polymerases

Enzymes that synthesize new DNA strands using exposed parental strands as templates and correct replication errors.

Semi-conservative replication

The mode of DNA replication that produces two new double-stranded DNA molecules, each containing $\frac{1}{2}$ original template strand and $\frac{1}{2}$ newly synthesized strand.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death that eliminates cells likely to accumulate significant DNA damage.

Sister chromatids

Two identical copies of a replicated chromosome joined together at a centromere.

Centromere

The specialized region that joins sister chromatids together and serves as the attachment point for spindle fibers.

Spindle

Cytoskeletal protein threads that attach to centromeres to maneuver chromosomes throughout cell division.

Prophase (Mitosis)

The first stage of mitosis, characterized by the condensation of sister chromatids and the assembly of the mitotic spindle.

Metaphase (Mitosis)

The mitotic stage in which the spindle aligns replicated chromosomes along the center of the cell at the metaphase plate (equator).

Anaphase (Mitosis)

The mitotic stage in which the spindle pulls sister chromatids apart at their centromeres, moving them to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase (Mitosis)

The final stage of mitosis during which chromosomes decondense and two new nuclear envelopes assemble.

Cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm following mitosis that splits the parent cell into two genetically identical daughter cells.

Cleavage furrow

The groove that forms in an animal cell during cytokinesis to pinch the membrane inward and divide the cell.

Cell plate

The partitioning structure built along the equator of a dividing plant cell during cytokinesis.

Cancer cells

Abnormal cells characterized by a lack of contact inhibition, indefinite division capability, and weak adhesion to adjacent cells.

Benign tumors

Non-cancerous masses of cells that stay confined to their site of origin without invading other tissues.

Malignant tumors

Cancerous tumors composed of cells that have the capacity to detach and spread across the body.

Metastases

Secondary cancerous growths formed by cells that migrate from an initial tumor to other locations.

Asexual reproduction

A mode of reproduction where a single parent produces genetically identical offspring without gamete fusion.

Sexual reproduction

A mode of reproduction where offspring are produced via the fusion of two reproductive cells (gametes) during fertilization.

Diploid cells

Cells containing two complete sets of chromosomes, typical of somatic body cells.

Fertilization

The fusion of two haploid gametes to establish a new diploid organism.

Gonads

The reproductive organs (specifically the testes and ovaries) where meiosis occurs.

Autosomes (Autozones)

The first $44$ chromosomes ($22$ pairs) in humans that do not directly determine biological sex.

Sex chromosomes

The final pair of chromosomes in the human genome ($XX$ in females or $XY$ in males) that determine genetic sex.

Crossing over

The reciprocal exchange of genetic fragments between paired homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of meiosis.

Meiosis I

The first meiotic division wherein homologous chromosome pairs align in the center and are separated into two distinct cells.

Meiosis II

The second meiotic division wherein sister chromatids are separated, ultimately producing $4$ nonidentical haploid gametes.