BIOL 1110 Exam 4 Review: Chapters 14, 15, and 10

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards for BIOL 1110 Exam 4 covering the researchers of DNA, replication enzymes, molecular structures, protein synthesis steps, cell cycle phases, and stem cell types.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; a double-sided molecule made of opposite-running strands with nucleotide subunits containing nitrogenous base pairs.

Griffith

Researcher who contributed to the discovery of the genetic role of DNA through his classic work identifying transformation in bacteria.

Avery, MacLeod and McCarty

Researchers whose experiments demonstrated that DNA is the substance responsible for transforming bacterial cells.

Chargaff

Researcher who discovered that the amounts of adenine equal thymine and cytosine equal guanine in DNA across species.

Wilkins and Franklin

Researchers who utilized X-ray diffraction techniques to produce photographs revealing the helical structure of DNA.

Watson and Crick

Researchers who formulated and published the double-helix structural model of DNA.

Helicase

An enzyme involved in DNA replication that untwists and separates the two strands of the double helix.

DNA Polymerase

An enzyme involved in DNA replication that synthesizes new DNA strands by adding complementary nucleotides to the template strand.

DNA Ligase

An enzyme involved in DNA replication that seals breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone by joining DNA segments together.

Angiogenesis

The physiological process by which new blood vessels develop and grow from pre-existing blood vessels.

Diploid

A cell or organism containing two complete sets of chromosomes ($2n$).

Haploid

A cell or organism containing a single, unpaired set of chromosomes ($n$).

Chromatin

The complex of DNA and associated proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

Chromosomes

Discrete structures of organized, condensed chromatin that carry genetic material from one generation to the next.

Genes

Specific nucleotide sequences within DNA that carry instructions coding for functional polypeptides or proteins.

Allele

An alternative or variant form of a specific gene.

Mutation

A permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA.

Transformation

The process by which a cell takes up and incorporates foreign DNA from its surroundings, altering its genotype and phenotype.

Nucleotide

The fundamental building block of nucleic acids, consisting of three parts: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

Genetic Code

The set of nucleotide base triplets that codes directly for the synthesis of polypeptides and proteins.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid; a single-stranded nucleic acid containing ribose and uracil that functions in protein synthesis.

Transcription

The first major stage of protein synthesis in which a segment of DNA is copied to produce a complementary molecule of mRNA.

Promoter Region

A specific sequence of DNA that serves as the binding site for RNA-synthesizing enzymes to initiate transcription.

Codon

A sequence of three consecutive nucleotides on an mRNA strand that codes for a specific amino acid or stop signal.

Intron

A non-coding segment of pre-mRNA that is cut out and discarded ('throw away!') during RNA processing.

Exon

A coding segment of RNA that is retained ('keep it!') and spliced together to form the mature mRNA sequence.

Translation

The second major stage of protein synthesis in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide.

Peptide Bonds

Covalent bonds formed between adjacent amino acids during the translation phase of polypeptide synthesis.

Anticodon

A triplet nucleotide sequence on a tRNA molecule that specifically binds to its complementary mRNA codon during translation.

Interphase

The stage of the cell cycle between divisions composed of $G_1$, $S$, and $G_2$ phases (along with the non-dividing $G_0$ state).

Mitosis

The process of eukaryotic nuclear division consisting of prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Cytokinesis

The physical division of the cytoplasm and cell body following mitosis to yield two distinct daughter cells.

Totipotent

A classification of stem cells capable of dividing and differentiating into any cell type of the entire organism, including extra-embryonic tissues.

Pluripotent

A classification of stem cells capable of giving rise to all cell types of the body, but not extra-embryonic tissues.

Cancer Cells

Cells that bypass regulatory checkpoints and divide uncontrollably due to mutations in genes governing cell cycle control.

Frameshift Mutation

A genetic alteration that can occur with insertion or deletion mutations, altering the downstream triplet reading frame of codons.