Principles of Earth Science Unit 5: Whitmore

History

_____________ of the Age of the Earth:

- 1625 Archbishop Ussher determined a date of creation as 4004 B.C.

- Uniformitarianism became popular in the 1800's and the age of the earth "grew"

- 1886 Kelvin suggested the earth was no older than 20-40 my based on heat escape of molten

- 1905 first isotopic dates suggested an age of about 2 by

- today the accepted age is about 4.6 by

Geologic

Comprehending ______________ Time:

- the Big Bang (8-20 Ga)

- The Origin of the Solar System (4.6 Ga)

- The Origin of Life on Earth (3.8 Ga)

- The Cambrian Explosion (530-525 Ma)

- The Paleozoic Era (542-245 Ma)

- The Mesozoic Era (242-66 Ma)

- The Cenozoic Era (66 Ma to present)

- Origin of Earliest Man (~ 5 Ma)

- Origin of Modern Man (~0.5 Ma)

Relative; absolute

Dating Methods: There are five ways to date a rock. Some give ____________ ages and some give _____________ ages

- The Law of superposition

- Cross cutting relationships

- Principle of Inclusions

- Biostratigraphy

- Radioactive methods

Superposition

1.) The Law of _________________

- In undisturbed sedimentary rocks. The oldest rock will always be on the bottom and the youngest rock on the top

- This is a relative dating method

cross cutting

2.) __________ ___________ Relationships

- The unit or fault which cuts across strata is younger than the strata it cuts across

Unconformities

_____________________:

- Unconformities are buried erosional surfaces. They can be used in dating as a cross cutting relationship

> Disconformity

> Nonconformity

> Angular unconformity

> Paraconformity

disconformity

A __________________ is an obvious erosional surface between two sedimentary rocks

nonconformity

A __________________ is an erosional surface between igneous or metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks

Angular

An _____________ unconformity is an erosional surface between sedimentary rocks, but the rocks on the bottom are at an angle.

paraconformity

A ____________________ exists between two sedimentary rocks where there is missing time, but not obvious erosional contact. The missing time is established by missing fossils.

Biostratigraphy

4.) _____________________

- A dating method based on various animals (bio) in certain layers of rock (stratigraphy)

- It is dependent upon the assumption of biological evolution and faunal succession

- it is based on the assumption that the earth is old and that certain suits of animals lived during certain periods of geologic time

dated; succession; discontinuity; paraconformity

How fossils are _________ and faunal ________________:

- Fossils cannot be directly dated with radioactivity, but if a fossil is associated with a datable rock layer (anywhere in the world), the rock layer can be dated to provide a date for the fossil. Then, wherever else that fossil is found, the same date can be applied to it.

- If the volcanic ash bed with "fossil C" is found to be 143 Ma, for example, then wherever else the fossil is found, it will be assumed to have the same age

- Note the change in fossil types as we go from the oldest to the youngest layers. This is sometimes referred to as "faunal succession" and happens as animals evolve (change) over time.

- Fossils show a break in the record. An obvious break (with erosion) is a __________________. A conformable break is a ______________________

long periods

Biostratigraphy is based on the assumption that evolution through __________ ____________ of time is true. The idea that life forms change through time is called "fossil succession" or "faunal succession"

Estimates

Absolute dating: Early ________________:

- Salt in the ocean (Holy, 90 ma)

- Accumulation of sediment in oceans (100 ma)

- Earth's temperature (Kelvin, 20-40 ma)

- Radioactivity (Benquerel, 1895)

- Current accepted age 4.6 Ga

Alpha; Beta; Electron

3 types of decay:

1.) __________ particle

2.) ________ particle

3.) _____________ capture

parent; daughter

For a geologist to find the "date" of the rock, he looks at the ratio between ___________ and _______________ products in the rock

assumptions

What _________________ are made in the dating process?

1.) Starting conditions

2.) Constant rate

3.) Closed system

- It can be shown that each one of these assumptions has led to faulty dating of rocks

Igneous; cooled; metamorphic

What kinds of rocks can be dated with radioactivity?

- Only ____________ ones, (ones that have ____________ from a melt)

- Granites, basalts, and volcanic ash beds are the most common examples

- Some ____________________ rocks

fission track

___________ ___________ dating: micrometer-sized, linear damage tracks that occur in insulating minerals and that are caused by the spontaneous fission of heavy, unstable nuclides.

lava dome; old date

Radioactive dating at Mt. St. Helens:

- The conventional K-Ar dating method was used on the 1986 dacite _______ _________ at Mt. St. Helens

- Whole rock age gives a date of 350,000 yrs +/- 5,000 years

- It was determined that the rock contained excess argon when it cooled giving it the anonymously _______ _________

Grand Canyon; same

Radioactive dating in ___________ ____________:

- Different dating methods yield different dates for the __________ rock

Discordant

________________ Dating:

- An example from the Crinum Coal Mine in Queensland, Australia

> In 1993, during a mining operation when workers were sinking a ventilation shaft, they found some wood encased in basalt

- The basalt was dated by the conventional K-Ar method and the wood was dated by the conventional 14C method

formation

The Process of 14C ______________:

1.) Cosmic radiation turns Nitrogen into 14C

2.) The 14C combines with oxygen to make radioactive CO2

3.) Plants take in the CO2 through the process of photosynthesis

4.) Animals get the C14 from consuming the plants

5.) Every living thing gets a constant ratio of 14C to 12C

6.) A date is obtained by finding the amount of 14C in something compared to modern amounts

Flat Contacts

Are there millions of years of time represented in the rock layers of the Grand Canyon?

1.) ________ _____________:

- What happens to a landscape when erosion is allowed to occur?

- Coconino-Hermit Contact

> Supposed to be 10-12 million years missing

- Redwall-Muav contact (eastern Grand Canyon)

> At least 160 million years missing

> "Time Gap" of at least 160 million years

How are flat contacts interpreted?

- ____________________ View:

> Long periods of non-deposition on previous surface

> Perfectly flat erosion of sediment that may have been deposited

- ___________ _________ View:

> There is no evidence of time between the layers. One layer deposited soon after the other

extensive bioturbation

Are there millions of years of time represented in the rock layers of the Grand Canyon?

2.) Lack of _____________ _________________

Folds

Are there millions of years of time represented in the rock layers of the Grand Canyon?

3.) ________:

- Tapeats Sandstone in Carbon Canyon:

> Deposition of Tapeats: 520 million years ago

> Age of folding: 60 million years ago

> Time difference: 460 million years!

Nautiloids

Are there millions of years of time represented in the rock layers of the Grand Canyon?

4.) Fossil _____________:

Injectites

Are there millions of years of time represented in the rock layers of the Grand Canyon?

5.) Sand _____________:

- Evidence for the sand intrusion hypothesis:

> Crack length patterns about Bright Angel Fault

Conventional; soft

___________________ View:

1.) Deposition of Hermit Formation

2.) Deposition of Coconino Sandstone

3.) Time passes (about 225 million years)

4.) Earthquake happens (225 m.y. later) causing injecting of sand-filled cracks

- Problem: How could the Coconino Sandstone have remained ________ of more than 225 million years until the faulting occurred?

Alternant; closely followed

___________________ View:

1.) Deposition of Hermit Formation

2.) Deposition of Coconino Sandstone

3.) Not much time passes

4.) Earthquake happens (a short time later) causing injection of sand-filled cracks

- This scenario overcomes the time problem and suggests these events ____________ _______________ one another, eliminating 225 m.y. of Grand Canyon time!

Radioactive

Are there millions of years of time represented in the rock layers of the Grand Canyon?

6DOes it matter _____.) ________________ Dating:

- How does it work?

> Assumptions:

1.) Constant rate of decay

2.) Starting conditions

3.) Closed system (no gain/loss of ingredients)

Plateau; Cardenas; diabase

Radioactive Dating:

1.) Dates on the ___________ lava flows

- Same rock, four dates:

> 6 K-Ar model ages (0.01 to 117 Ma)

> 5 Rb-Sr model ages (1270 to 1390 Ma)

> Rb-Sr isochron age (1340 Ma)

> Pb-Pb isochron age (2600 Ma)

2.) Dates on the _____________ Lavas

- Same rock, four dates:

> 5 K-Ar model ages (791 to 853 Ma)

> 6 Rb-Sr model ages (980 to 1100 Ma)

> K-Ar isochron age (715 ma)

> Rb-Sr isochron age (1070 Ma)

3.) Dates on the _____________ sills

- Same rock, five dates:

> K-Ar model ages (n=11) = (656 to 1053 Ma)

> K-Ar isochron age (n=11) = (841 Ma)

> Rb-Sr isochron age (n=11) = (1055 Ma)

> Sm-Nd isochron age (n=11) = (1375 Ma)

> Pb-Pb isochron age (n=11) = (1249 Ma)

4.) Dates on ___________________

- Same Rock, Four Dates:

> 27 K-Ar model ages (405 to 2574 Ma)

> Rb-Sr isochron age (n=19) = (1240 Ma)

> Sm-Nd isochron age (n=21) = (1655 Ma)

> Pb-Pb isochron age (n=20) = (1883 Ma)

when; how; inserted

Does it matter __________ and ________ God Created?

- Considerations:

> What is the clearest teaching of Scripture?

> What have the church fathers consistently believed and taught?

> Exodus 20:11, Matthew 19:4

> The fossil record

> When did death enter the perfect would and when was the first bloodshed?

- Where can long periods of time be _____________ into Genesis (if they exist)?

> Today

> New Testament

> Old Testament Times

> The Flood

> The Fall

> Genesis 1:31

> 6 Days of Creation

> Genesis 1:1

literal; accurate; Genealogy

The ___________ /historical approach to Genesis:

- Genesis is an historical document with _______________ genealogies and 24 hr days

- The theory:

> 24 hour, six consecutive days

> Exodus 20:11

> Matthew 19:4 In the beginning he made them male and female

> Only 6,000-10,000 years ago

> Fall of Satan and Man after Genesis 1:31

> Importance of genealogies and Genesis 3:15

> Noah's Flood (fossils and rock layers)

> Tower of Babel

- Problems:

> _______________ problems, especially between Shem and Abraham

> Time/Evolution/Fossils, if real how does it fit into a scriptural model?

origin

The __________ of millions of years:

- James Hutton (1726-1797)

- Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

- Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

church leaders; Harmonization; fossil

Response of ___________ ____________:

- Some did not accept millions of years and recognized the heresy

- ____________________ Hypotheses:

> Gap theory

> Progressive Creation

> Day Age Theory

> Theistic Evolution

- All of the theories are trying to account for the __________ record and the millions of years of time

Gap theory

______ __________:

- Originated in 1803, Thomas Chalmners

- The Theory:

> God created an initial world in Genesis 1:1

> Satan Fell, cast to earth ("formless and void")

> God re-created the world beginning in Genesis 1:3

> Geological time and all fossils go in between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2

- Problems:

> Not what Genesis most clearly teaches

> Is not supported by he fossil record

> Matthew 19:4 (Adam and Eve created in "beginning")

> Earth was "very good" at Genesis 1:31

> Satan's fall must have come after Genesis 1:31, not before

> Death before Fall

Progressive Creation

________________ ______________:

- God progressively creates through time (no evolution)

- The Theory:

> Big Bang

> Long ages are true, but evolution is not true

> God intersperses His creation through time, acres given souls

> "Two Books" idea: Nature and Bible

- Problems:

> Not what the Bible clearly says

> Order of fossil record not the same as order in Genesis

> Exodus 20:11, Matthew 19:4

> Death before Fall

Day-Age

______-______ Theory:

- 2 Peter 3:8 "With the Lord a day is like a thousand years and a thousand years are like a day"

- The Theory:

> The days of Genesis are not 24 hour days, but instead are long periods of time

> The geological ages are the "days" of Genesis

- Problems

> Not what the Bible clearly says

> Order of fossil record not the same as order in Genesis

> Exodus 20:11, Matthew 19:4

> Death before Fall

Theistic

___________ Evolution:

- God used evolution as his means of Creation

- The Theory:

> Genesis to be understood as allegorical, not historical

> Evolution and long ages are true

> Radioactive dating is accurate

> Humans evolved from apes and God gave two of these apes souls

- Problems:

> Not what the Bible clearly teaches

> Exodus 20:11 and Matthew 19:4

> Order of creation not the same as order of Genesis

> Jesus and many others referred to events in Genesis as historical, not allegorical

> Fossils don't support evolutionary story

> Death before Fall

Radioactive dating

Problems with _________________ __________:

- Many assumptions involved

- Different radioactive dating methods do not yield the same date on the same rock

- Modern lava flows date at millions of years old

young earth

Evidences for a ____________ ____________:

- Salt in the ocean

- Erosion rates

- Sediment accumulation rates in ocean

- Carbon 14 in coal and dinosaur bones

- Helium in zircons

- Number of people on earth

- Archeology

- Rate at which galaxies wind up

- Earth's magnetic field decay

- Comets

- Evidence in the rocks (fossils, folds, lack of bioturbation, sand intrusions, flat contacts)

Salt; ocean

Evidences for a young earth:

- ________ in the ____________

> At current rates of input, all salt could accumulate in just 38 million years

> At minimal rates of input, all salt could accumulate in just 62 million years

> Oceans are supposed to be over 4 billion years old

> Where is all the missing salt?

Sodium Flux; current rates; minimum

____________ ________ in the Oceans:

- Input processes:

> Rivers

> Ocean floor sediments

> Pulverized sediment from glacial ice

> Atmospheric and volcanic dust

> Coastal erosion

> Melted glacial ice

> volcanic aerosols

> ground water seepage

> Sea floor hydrothermal vents

- Removal Processes

> Sea spray

> Ion exchange

> Burial of pore water

> Halite deposition

> Alteration of sea floor basalt

> Albite formation

> Zeolite formation

- At ___________ ________ of input and removal of sodium to the ocean and assuming the ocean began with no sodium, the ocean can be no older than 38 million years old

- If ______________ rates of addition and maximum rates of removal are considered, the ocean can be no older than 62 million years old

Erosion; Filling

___________ of the Continents and __________ of the Ocean Basins:

- At present rates, the continents could be completely eroded to sea level in just 14 million years

- At present rates the ocean basins could be filled with sediments in just 14 million years

Helium

At today's rate, the amount of the ___________ in the atmosphere could accumulate in just 2 million years

world population

Number of people on earth:

- How long would it take to produce today's __________ ________________ (currently 7 billion)?

> Assume 35-year generations

> Assume 2.8 children per set of parents

> Start with 6 people, 4.500 years ago (128 generations)

> Assume 85% of children survive to reproduce

> Answer: 28,064,823,070 (28 billion people!)

zircons

Helium trapped in ____________:

1.) When radioactive decay occurs, it produces Helium gas

2.) The gas can leak out of the zircon crystals

3.) Based on how fast the Helium leaks out, the crystals have too much Helium to be billions of years old

4.) If the earth is only thousands of years old, it appears that radioactive decay rates may have been faster in the past, based on the large amount of Helium in the crystals

Archeology

____________________:

- Oldest civilizations that we know of on earth are near Mt. Ararat

- Tower of Babel was in Iraq

- Abraham was from Iraq (Ur)

- Genesis 11:2 "they journeyed from the east"

galaxies

Rate at which _____________ wind up:

- Spiral galaxies should quickly loose their shape in a very old universe

- 170 billion galaxies each with billions or trillions of stars

- Galaxies on the edge of the universe are similar to those nearby, showing little evolution has occurred

Evidence

_______________ in the Rocks:

- Fossils and fossil graveyards

- Sand Intrusions

- Flat contacts

- Folds

- Lack of bioturbation

Fossils

____________:

- Animals of all types decompose after death

- Fossils of all kinds are evidence of rapid burial

- It does not take millions of years to make a fossil

Flat contacts; time gap

________ _____________:

- Coconino-Hermit Contact

> Supposed to be 10-12 million years missing

- Redwall-Muav contact (eastern Grand Canyon)

> At least 160 million years missing

> "_______ _______" of at least 160 million years

interpreted; conventional; young

Flat Contacts: How are they ______________?

- ________________ View:

> Long periods of non-deposition on previous surface

> Perfectly flat erosion of sediment that may have been deposited

- ___________ Earth View:

> There is no evidence of time between the layers. One layer deposited soon after the other

Dinosaurs

When did ______________ Live?

- Conventional Model:

> Mesozoic (245-66 Ma)

- Biblical Model:

> Pre-Flood World

> Noah's Flood

> Post-Flood World

Petroglyphs

Ancient drawings or carvings that have been made in rock by native peoples

- Some were of dinosaurs

Carbon-14

____________-____ dating of dinosaur bones

- Soft tissue

- Feathers

Scripture

Dinosaurs in _______________:

- Job 40 & 41

> Behemoth: Job 40:15-24

- Leviathan: Job 41

> Psalm 104

- Flying Dragons (?):

> Isaiah 14:29

> Isaiah 30:6

sauropod

The _______________ dinosaurs:

- "Brontosaurus"

- Apatosaurus

- Brachiosaurus

- Camarasaurus

importance

The _______________ of fossils:

- History of life on earth

- Marine fossils on land (evidence of Noah's Flood)

- Answer questions/predictions about evolution

- Show rapid rates of deposition

6,000

No fossil can be older than about ____________ years

Fossil record

10 Lessons from the ___________ Record:

1.) Fossils always indicate rapid burial

2.) Many fossils contain unfossilized soft tissues

3.) The fossil record is characterized by stasis, NOT evolution

4.) Multiple groups of species appear suddenly in the same group

5.) Multiple groups (phyla) appear suddenly

6.) Marine rock layers blanket ALL the continents

7.) Fossils show evidence of long distance transport

8.) Fossils show different conditions existed in the past

9.) Carbon 14 in fossils

10.) Fossils cause a time dilemma for conventional geology

rapid; stasis; suddenly; long distance; dilemma

1.) Fossils always indicate ________ burial

2.) Many fossils contain unfossilized soft tissues

3.) The fossil record is characterized by _________ , NOT evolution

4.) Multiple groups of species appear suddenly in the same group

5.) Multiple groups (phyla) appear _____________

6.) Marine rock layers blanket ALL the continents

7.) Fossils show evidence of ________ ______________ transport

8.) Fossils show different conditions existed in the past

9.) Carbon 14 in fossils

10.) Fossils cause a time ____________ for conventional geology

Cenozoic

The _______________ is the longest period of earth history within a Biblical perspective

similar species; whole groups

A problem for Darwin: Sudden appearance of multiple ____________ ____________ within the same layers

- On the sudden appearance appearance of groups of Allied Species in the lowest known fossiliferous strata.

- Sudden appearance of multiple phyla within the same layers (the Cambrian Explosion)

> On the sudden appearance of whole groups of Allied Species

14C Formation

The Process of ______ _______________:

1.) Cosmic radiation turns Nitrogen into 14C

2.) The 14C combines with oxygen to make radioactive CO2

3.) Plants take in the CO2 through the process of photosynthesis

4.) Animals get the 14C from consuming the plants

5.) Every living thing gets a constant ratio of 14C to 12C

6.) A date is obtained by finding the amount of 14C in something compared to modern amounts

time dilemma

The _________ ____________ for conventional geology

- Time supposedly missing: 160 million years

not; during; transitional; judgment

Summary of the Nature of the Fossil Record:

- Fossils are ______ very old

- Very few pre-Flood fossils

- Many fossils made __________ Flood

> Cambrian Explosion

> Fossils must be made quickly

> Marine strata on land

> Dinosaur fossils made during Flood

- Post-Flood Fossils

> Longer time period

> Most ______________ forms show up here

- Fossils should remind us of God's _______________ of sin

marine rocks; Unconformity; order; contacts; Coal; Oil; salt; continents; shape;

What things can flood geology help us understand?

1.) ___________ _________ on land

- Early in the flood:

> Formation of Great Unconformity and beginning of marine deposits on the continents

> Vigorous convection currents drive plate movement. Causes ocean floor to rise and continents to sink. Ocean floor becomes hot and expands

- Late in the Flood

> Marine sediments on continents

> Slow-down of convection causes continents to rise. The cooling sea floor contracts, allowing water to runoff continents

- After the flood

> Mountains form as continents rise

2.) Great __________________

- This is how the continents look today

> Continents covered with a thin layer of marine sedimentary rocks

- Geologically, a transgression is an increase in sea level (not a sin)

- A vertical sand --> mud --> lime sequence indicates a rise in sea level

3.) Fossils and __________ of fossils

- Taphonomy and the Fossil record

4.) Flat ______________ between layers

- Coconino Sandstone:

> Time supposedly missing: 10-12 million years

- Redwall Limestone:

> Time supposedly missing: 160 million years

5.) Coal and oil

- Made from buried organic debris

> _________: mostly bark, wood, plant fragments

> ______: mostly bark, wood, plant fragments

- Both need to be heated

- Can be made during the flood or after

> Large deposits made during both times

6.) Dolomite

- We found bedded dolomite in the Coconino! (Andrus Point, Arizona)

7.) Massive _______ deposits

- Role of superficial water during the flood

> Salt will dissolve when water is like this. Organics (like oil) will separate from water

> Salt comes out of solution and organics go into solution

> ie. Cargill Salt Mine, Cleveland Ohio

8.) Fit of the _________________ (CPT)

- Continental arrangement called Rodinia, it roughly forms a single supercontinent

- About half way through the flood, the supercontinent Pangaea formed

- The entire continent would have been underwater

- At the end of the flood, the continents would have been a little closer together, but they would have resembled today's arrangement

9.) Mountains

10.) Geomorphology ( __________ of landscapes)

- Post-flood conditions and processes that likely caused massive amounts of erosion (and deposition)

> Connate water content of sediments

> degree of lithification

> volcanic activity

> Seismic activity

> tectonic activity

> precipitation

> lack of vegetation

> various glacial processes

11.) Glaciers

Greywacke

a type of sedimentary rock made of poorly sorted sand grains

Catastrophism

Earth history concept that held that:

- The world was ancient, not young

- The world's geology was formed by many major destructive events over time

- Following each catastrophe, God would replenish the world with new plants and animals

- Noah's flood was only the most recent catastrophe and may or may not have been global

Day-Age

Idea that each of the days of creation was considered to be some extremely long period of time, or "ages" of geology

Gap

"________" Theory: Idea that wanted to keep a normal 6-day creation week by placing most of geological history in a "gap" between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2

Uniformitarianism

"The present is the key to the past"; Geological processes of the past operated slowly, and only the processes and rates observed today could be applied to the geological record of the past (Geologists Hutton and Lyell)

Actualism

Modified version of uniformitarianism that holds that the geological processes that worked in the past were much the same as those operating today, though the scope and magnitude of events may be very different

Relative

_____________ Dating: Help determine the sequence and order in which geological events occurred, without assigning a numerical date/age

Strata

layers of sedimentary rocks

Original Horizontality

Law of _______________ ____________________: When sediments or extrusive igneous rocks are deposited, they start out flat. Any tilting/folding of the unit happened after its initial formation

Superposition

Law of ______________________: In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks and extrusive igneous rocks, the oldest units are at the bottom and the newest materials are near the top

Lateral Continuity

Law of _______________ ____________________: When sediments or extrusive igneous rocks are deposited, they remain in the same composition in all directions until they either contact an edge or wall to the depositional environment, or thin out as energy levels decrease far from the source region

Stratigraphy

The study of the relationships among sedimentary rocks

Walther's law

______________ ________: In a vertical sequence of sedimentary rocks, the types of rocks found above and below each other are the same as those found adjacent sedimentary environments

Inclusions

Rule of ________________: When a rock includes pieces of another rock inside it, the included pieces must be older than the rock containing them

Cross-cutting

Principle of __________-___________ relations: Geological structures or features (such as dikes, faults, or erosion surfaces) must be younger than the geological units that they affect

Sedimentary

___________________ Structures: Often with or at the top of the unit. Reflect the conditions in which the rock formed

- Can be primary or secondary

primary

______________ Sedimentary structures: Made during the initial deposition of sedimentary material, and include cross-beds, ripple marks, and graded beds

secondary

______________ Sedimentary structures: Formed after depositions and can include mud cracks, raindrop impressions, and animal tracks and burrows

Unconformities

Surfaces within rocks that represent a break in time

Disconformity

Unconformity located between two roughly parallel sedimentary or extrusive igneous units

- Rocks are deposited according to original horizontality, then erosion or non-deposition occurs, more rocks are deposited according to original horizontality, and parallel to lower rocks

Angular

____________ Unconformity: Where sedimentary or extrusive igneous rocks above and below the unconformity are oriented at some angle to each other (Rocks below are not parallel to those above)

Nonconformity

Unconformity located at the contact of a sedimentary or extrusive igneous rock and an intrusive igneous or metamorphic rock

Fossil

The remains of a formerly living organism that is preserved in the geological record

Paleontologists

Scientists who study fossils

Impressions

When an organism dies and is buried, the body is pressed into the sediment and may produce an impression of the original shape

Tracks

__________ /Traces: Impressions left by organisms as they move

Amber

Tree sap, when hardened and fossilized, forms an orange to yellow glassy material. Organisms are sometimes trapped inside and fossilized

Coprolites

Fossilized feces of an animal. Preserves the fossilized remains of an animal's diet

Petrification

Occurs when mineral-rich waters deposit microcrystalline silica in the open spaces between the tissues of an organism (ie. wood)

Correlation

The process of linking or matching rock units over distances in which they are not seen

- Physical: Rocks matched according to shared composition and structures

- Temporal: Rocks matched according to their time of formation