unit 2 - Branches of government

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the formal and informal powers of the presidency, executive branch structure, congressional organization, legislative procedure, and checks between branches.

Article II

The section of the United States Constitution that establishes the roles, powers, and functions of the executive branch of government.

Formal Powers (Executive)

Presidential powers explicitly outlined in Article II of the Constitution, including recommending laws, appointing ambassadors and judges, convening or adjourning Congress, and approving or vetoing bills.

Informal Powers (Executive)

Presidential powers not explicitly written in the Constitution but interpreted to be inherent in the office to achieve policy goals, such as bargaining with lawmakers or threatening a veto.

Pocket Veto

An indirect veto of a legislative bill that occurs when Congress adjourns before the president's 10-day review period expires and the president takes no action, effectively killing the bill.

Head of Party

The informal presidential role in which the president acts as the de facto face and leader of their political party as the country's most recognized Democrat, Republican, or third-party member.

Commander in Chief

The constitutional role granting the president control over the military, allowing rapid military action before formal congressional declarations of war.

Chief of State

The ceremonial and symbolic role where the president acts as the official public face of the country and chief ambassador.

Chief Diplomat

The presidential role responsible for directing foreign policy and negotiating executive agreements with foreign nations to manage trade, mutual defense, and global standards.

Executive Agreements

International contracts or pacts negotiated directly between the president and foreign nations that do not require Senate treaty approval.

Executive Orders

Directives issued by the president allowing them to manage operations of the federal government without congressional approval, though subject to judicial review and reversal by future presidents.

Signing Statements

Written pronouncements issued by the president upon signing a congressional bill into law, offering their interpretation or commentary on the statute.

Executive Privilege

The implied presidential power allowing the executive branch to withhold information or confidential communications from another branch of government.

United States v. Nixon (1974)

A landmark Supreme Court case ruling that the doctrine of executive privilege is not absolute and cannot be invoked to withhold evidence needed during criminal proceedings.

Cabinet Secretaries

The appointed head officers who lead each of the 15 executive branch Cabinet departments, requiring Senate confirmation.

Chief of Staff

The head of the president's immediate staff who manages the daily operations of the White House and does not require Senate confirmation.

War Powers Act of 1973

A federal law designed to limit the president's unilateral military authority by requiring congressional approval or disapproval within 60 days of initiating military action.

Bully Pulpit

The prominent platform provided by the presidency that enables the executive to speak directly to the public to guide, persuade, and build support for national policy agendas.

State of the Union Address

An annual report given by the president to Congress and the nation reporting on the economic, military, and social condition of the country.

Federalist No. 70

A foundational essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing that an energetic, single-person executive is essential to good government, national defense, and executive accountability.

Bicameral Legislature

A lawmaking body established in Article I comprising two separate houses—the House of Representatives and the Senate—to represent the populace and states.

Seventeenth Amendment

A 1913 constitutional amendment that replaced the selection of senators by state legislatures with direct popular election by the citizens of each state.

House of Representatives

The lower congressional chamber consisting of 435 voting members serving 2-year terms, considered the chamber most representative of the general population.

Senate

The upper congressional chamber consisting of 100 members serving 6-year terms, designed as a more deliberative and experienced body representing equal state interests.

Congressional Caucus

A formal or informal faction, coalition, or group within Congress organized around shared political party affiliations, ideological goals, or demographic interests.

Power of the Purse

The constitutional authority granted to Congress to raise revenue, pass taxes, determine the federal budget, and appropriate public funds for government spending.

Advice and Consent

The exclusive constitutional role of the Senate to review, suggest, and approve or reject presidential appointments and foreign treaties, as well as try impeachments.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and de facto leader of the chamber's majority party who manages committee assignments and floor debate.

President of the Senate

The constitutional leadership role designated to the Vice President of the United States, whose primary legislative authority is casting the deciding vote to break ties.

President Pro Tempore

The senior majority senator designated to preside over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President.

Senate Majority Leader

The chief legislative strategist and floor leader in the Senate who manages the legislative calendar and determines which bills are debated on the floor.

Whip

A party leadership position in Congress responsible for maintaining party discipline, monitoring potential votes, and ensuring members vote along party lines.

Standing Committee

A permanent legislative panel in the House or Senate established to consider bills and issues within a specific permanent policy jurisdiction.

Joint Committee

A congressional committee composed of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate designed for routine management and research.

Select Committee

A temporary congressional panel created to conduct a specific investigation, study, or special policy examination.

Conference Committee

A temporary joint committee formed between both chambers to reconcile differing House and Senate versions of a bill before final passage and presidential review.

House Rules Committee

The influential House committee that sets the schedule, terms of debate, and amendment allowances for all bills reaching the House floor.

Germane Amendment

A formal amendment or revision that is strictly and directly related to the subject matter of the original legislative bill.

Filibuster

A Senate procedural tactic whereby a senator or minority group extends floor debate indefinitely to delay or block a vote on legislation or an appointment.

Cloture Rule (Rule 22)

A procedural vote in the Senate requiring a $\frac{3}{5}$ supermajority (60 votes) to bring formal debate to a close and defeat a filibuster.

Hold

An informal procedural practice in the Senate allowing one or more senators to prevent a motion or bill from reaching the floor for debate.

Rider

A nongermane amendment attached to a legislative bill to advance an unrelated provision or agenda that would likely fail on its own merit.

Omnibus Bill

A large legislative measure that packages numerous diverse measures, riders, or appropriations into a single complex bill, colloquially called a Christmas Tree Bill.

Pork-Barrel Spending

Legislative spending provisions secured by lawmakers that direct federal funds to specific local projects benefiting solely their home district or state.

Pigeonholing

A procedural maneuver whereby a committee chairperson sets aside a bill and refuses to assign or debate it, effectively killing it in committee.

Logrolling

The mutual legislative practice of trading votes between lawmakers to secure collective support on distinct bills or policy objectives.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

The executive office that serves as the president's primary budgeting agency, tasked with preparing the federal budget proposal and overseeing agency implementation.

Mandatory Spending

Federal expenditures required by existing statutes for entitlement programs that have statutory eligibility rules, such as Social Security and Medicare.

Discretionary Spending

Government funding that Congress determines and authorizes annually through the appropriation process for areas like defense, education, and transportation.

Delegate Model

A theory of legislative representation where an elected official votes purely according to the explicit preferences and instructions of their constituents.

Trustee Model

A representation model where a lawmaker exercises independent judgment and personal conscience to vote on behalf of the public's broader interests.

Politico Model

A hybrid representational role where an elected official alternates between the delegate and trustee models depending on the specific issue or political pressure.

Gerrymandering

The deliberate redrawing of legislative and congressional boundary lines to create an unfair electoral advantage for a particular political party.

Swing District

A competitive electoral constituency, also known as a marginal seat, where neither political party holds an overwhelming majority or guaranteed victory.

Divided Government

A governance structure in which one political party holds the executive office while the opposing party holds the majority in one or both houses of Congress.

Lame Duck President

An elected executive who continues to hold office during the transitional period between an election defeat or end of term and the inauguration of their successor.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

A landmark Supreme Court case establishing that legislative redistricting disputes present justiciable issues under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

A landmark Supreme Court ruling holding that race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing congressional district lines without satisfying strict scrutiny.