Social Psychology: Group Behavior, Gender and Prejudice, and the Social Self

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering vocabulary terms, theoretical models, and cognitive phenomena from modules on group behavior, gender and prejudice, and the social self.

Social Facilitation

Initially a term for enhanced performance in the presence of others; now a broader term for the effect, positive or negative, of the presence of others on performance.

Zajonc's Theory of Social Facilitation

Theory stating that the presence of others increases arousal, which increases dominant response tendencies. On simple/well-learned tasks, the dominant response is correct (performance facilitated). On difficult/novel tasks, the dominant response is incorrect (performance impaired). Tested via the Cockroach Experiment.

Evaluation Apprehension

People's concern about how they might appear or be evaluated in the eyes of others. Drives social facilitation effects rather than mere physical co-presence. Tested via pseudorecognition tests and blindfolded observer experiments.

Social Loafing

The tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored or evaluated.

Groupthink

Faulty thinking by members of highly cohesive groups in which critical scrutiny devoted to issues is subverted by social pressures to reach consensus. Prevented when leaders withhold opinions initially, outside input is welcomed, and a devil's advocate is assigned.

Self-Censorship

Withholding information, doubts, or dissenting opinions in group discussions to avoid conflict or maintain group cohesion.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals. Whatever direction the group as a whole is initially leaning, group discussion tends to make members lean further in that direction due to exposure to persuasive arguments and social comparison.

Power

The ability to control one's own outcomes and those of others.

Social Hierarchy

The arrangement of individuals in a group in terms of their relative power, status, and influence.

Power Acquisition (Virtue vs. Vice)

Power can be gained via Virtue (prosocial actions benefiting the group, such as courage, humanity, justice) or Vice (Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, force, manipulation). Virtues yield sustainable long-term power; vice yields short-term dominant control followed by rejection.

Approach/Inhibition Theory of Power

A theory maintaining that high-power individuals are inclined to pursue goals and make quick/rash judgments (approach-driven), whereas low-power individuals are more likely to constrain behavior and pay careful attention to others (inhibition-driven). Tested via forehead 'E' drawing and chair manipulation tasks.

Deindividuation

A reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation that occurs when people are in large groups or anonymous settings. Tested via Halloween candy stealing studies.

Individuation

An enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self, leading people to act carefully, deliberately, and in accordance with their internal values.

Self-Awareness Theory

Theory maintaining that when people focus attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to internal standards and values. Heightened by mirrors or eye graphics.

Spotlight Effect

People's conviction that other people are paying far more attention to their appearance and behavior than they actually are. Tested via the Barry Manilow T-shirt study.

Social Dominance Theory

A theory regarding the hierarchical nature of societies and how privileged groups maintain advantage. Hierarchies are sustained via individual discrimination, institutional discrimination (laws/norms), and behavioral asymmetries (deference shown to dominant groups).

Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)

A personality trait reflecting support for socioeconomic hierarchy and the belief that superior groups should dominate inferior groups in society.

Just-World Hypothesis

The cognitive belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get, leading people to rationalize inequality and blame victims.

Dehumanization

The attribution of non-human characteristics and denial of human mental qualities (agency, warmth, moral capacity) to outgroups.

Anthropomorphism

The attribution of human traits, feelings, thoughts, and intentions to non-human entities or objects.

Stereotype Content Model (SCM)

A model describing common group stereotypes along two primary dimensions: Warmth (perceived intent/competition) and Competence (perceived capability/status).

Systemic Inequities

Historical or contemporary laws, policies, practices, and norms that advantage some social groups while disadvantaging others across wealth, education, housing, and healthcare.

Stereotype Threat

The situational fear of confirming negative stereotypes that others hold about one's social group, which induces anxiety and depletes cognitive resources required for performance.

Marley Hypothesis

The claim that different racial groups make different assessments of modern systemic racism because they differ in their critical knowledge of documented historical racial injustices.

Self-Schema

A cognitive structure derived from past experience that represents a person's beliefs and feelings about the self in general and specific situations.

The Social Me

Concept formulated by William James referring to the knowledge we possess about ourselves derived strictly from our social relationships.

Reflected Self-Appraisals

A belief about what other people think of oneself, acting as a internal mirror for self-evaluation.

Situationism

The principle that the social self is highly malleable and changes predictably across different social contexts and environments.

Working Self-Concept

The specific subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind and active within a particular immediate social context.

Dual Truths of the Social Self

The principle that the social self is malleable (shifting across contexts) yet possesses a stable core of self-knowledge that persists across time.

Independent Self-Construal

A self-definition prevalent in Western cultures viewing the self as an autonomous entity distinct and separate from others, defined by internal personal traits.

Interdependent Self-Construal

A self-definition prevalent in East Asian and non-Western cultures viewing the self as fundamentally connected to others, defined by social roles, duties, and relationships.

Social Comparison Theory

The idea that people evaluate their own opinions, abilities, and internal states by comparing themselves to others.

Social Identities

The aspects of a person's self-concept derived from perceived membership in relevant social groups (e.g., nationality, race, gender, sports teams).

Self-Stereotyping

The phenomenon where individuals define themselves in terms of traits, norms, and values associated with a social group when group identity is salient.

Self-Esteem

The overall positive or negative evaluation an individual holds regarding their self-worth.

Contingencies of Self-Worth

The thesis that an individual's self-esteem is dependent on successes and failures in specific domains they personally deem vital to their self-worth.

Sociometer Hypothesis

The idea that self-esteem acts as an internal, subjective index tracking the extent to which a person is included and valued by others versus excluded.

Self-Enhancement

The fundamental desire to maintain, increase, or protect positive views of oneself.

Better-Than-Average Effect

The finding that most people evaluate themselves as superior to the average person on desirable personality traits and abilities.

Self-Affirmation Theory

The idea that people maintain self-worth after psychological threats by affirming valued aspects of themselves unrelated to the threat domain.

Self-Verification Theory

The theory that people strive for others to view them as they view themselves, maintaining coherence and predictability in their self-concept.

Self-Regulation

Processes by which people initiate, alter, and control their behavior in pursuit of goals, including resisting short-term temptations that thwart long-term outcomes.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

A theory maintaining that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting Ideal Selves and Ought Selves; falling short elicits specific negative emotions.

Actual Self

The self-concept representing the qualities an individual believes they currently possess.

Ideal Self

The self-concept representing an individual's hopes, wishes, and personal aspirations.

Ought Self

The self-concept representing the duties, obligations, and external demands an individual feels compelled to honor.

Promotion Focus

Self-regulation oriented toward ideal-self standards, emphasizing attainment of positive outcomes through approach behaviors.

Prevention Focus

Self-regulation oriented toward ought-self standards, emphasizing avoidance of negative outcomes through vigilant avoidance behaviors.

Implementation Intentions

Concrete 'if-then' plans connecting a specific situational cue ('if') with a goal-directed behavior ('then') to automate goal pursuit.

Self-Presentation / Impression Management

Presenting the specific public image of ourselves that we want others to believe and accept.

Face

The favorable public image of ourselves that we explicitly project and manage in social interactions.

Self-Monitoring

The tendency to monitor and adjust one's behavior to fit the demands and expectations of the current social situation.

Self-Handicapping

The tendency to engage in self-defeating behavior ahead of time to create a ready-made external excuse should one perform poorly or fail.

Black Sheep Effect

The psychological tendency for group members to evaluate and punish deviant ingroup norm-violators significantly more harshly than deviant outgroup members in order to protect collective identity and social standing.

Information Sampling Bias

The tendency for decision-making groups to spend the majority of their time discussing shared information known to all members, while failing to pool and discuss critical unshared knowledge.

Proteus Effect

The phenomenon where individuals unconsciously adapt and align their real-world behaviors and attitudes to match the physical characteristics of their virtual avatars.

Backlash Effect

Social, evaluative, or economic penalties incurred by individuals who violate prescriptive stereotype expectations, such as agentic and assertive women being viewed as competent but evaluated as less likable and less hireable.

Intersectional Invisibility

The cognitive phenomenon wherein individuals possessing intersecting subordinate social identities (such as Black women) fail to fit prototypical group schemas and are consequently more easily forgotten, confused, or overlooked.

Attributional Ambiguity

A state of psychological uncertainty experienced by stigmatized group members regarding whether evaluative feedback reflects their actual performance or underlying prejudice and bias.

Overjustification Effect

The reduction in intrinsic interest and motivation that occurs when an extrinsic reward is introduced for engaging in an activity that was previously performed purely for enjoyment.

Distinctiveness Hypothesis

The proposition that individuals highlight and define their working self-concept using attributes and traits that set them apart from others in their immediate social context.

Positive Illusions

Mildly exaggerated, optimistic views about oneself that act as a physiological buffer against acute stress, but can lead to emotional detachment and disengagement over long periods.