Unit 2: Cognition (NEW CED)

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give meaning to our environment.

Bottom-up processing

An approach where perception starts with sensory input and works up to the brain's integration of this information.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, drawing on experience and expectations to construct perceptions.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.

Closure

The perceptual tendency to mentally fill in gaps in a visual image to perceive objects as wholes.

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Proximity

The perceptual tendency to group together visual and auditory events that are near each other.

Similarity

The perceptual tendency to group together elements that seem alike.

Attention

The focusing of mental resources on select information.

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.

Inattentional blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Relative clarity

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are seen as farther away than sharp, clear objects.

Relative size

A cue that allows determining the closeness of objects to an object of known size.

Texture gradient

A gradual change from coarse to fine texture signaling increasing distance.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Prototypes

Mental image or best example of a category.

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb to simplify decision-making.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how similar something is to a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Estimating probability based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

Tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often one that has worked in the past.

Priming

The activation of associations in memory to influence behavior or perception.

Framing

The way information is presented, influencing decisions and judgments.

Gambler's fallacy

Belief that future probabilities are influenced by past events in random processes.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The inclination to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, time, or effort has been made.

Executive functions

Cognitive processes like planning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Generating many possible solutions to a problem.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing down multiple ideas to find the best solution.

Functional fixedness

The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their typical uses.

Metacognition

Awareness and control over one's own cognitive processes.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt.

Multiple intelligence

Theory suggesting people have different types of intelligences, like linguistic, logical, spatial, etc.

g (general intelligence)

The overall mental capacity that influences specific cognitive abilities.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A numerical measure of intelligence derived from standardized tests.

Mental age

The age at which a person's cognitive abilities are typical based on intelligence testing.

Chronological age

The actual age of a person in years.

Standardization

Ensuring test scores are interpreted consistently by comparing them to a norm group.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Construct validity

Whether a test truly measures the concept it claims to measure.

Predictive validity

How well a test predicts future performance or behavior.

Reliability

The consistency and stability of test results over time.

Test-retest reliability

Consistency of test results when administered at different times.

Split-half reliability

A measure of test consistency by comparing two halves of a test.

Stereotype threat

The fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group, affecting performance.

Stereotype lift

The enhancement of performance when one is reminded of positive stereotypes about their group.

Flynn Effect

The observed increase in IQ scores over time across generations.

Achievement tests

Tests that measure knowledge or skills acquired in a specific area.

Aptitude tests

Tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Fixed mindset

The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change.

Growth mindset

The belief that one's skills and qualities can change and improve through effort and dedication.

Explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare.'

Episodic memory

The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

Semantic memory

Memory for factual information.

Implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection.

Procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time.

Long-term potentiation

An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Working memory model

A model that suggests that memory involves a series of active, temporary memory stores that manipulate information.

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Phonological loop

The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The part of working memory that holds visual and spatial information.

Multi-store model

A model of memory that suggests information passes through three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Levels of processing model

The theory that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.

Shallow encoding

Processing information based on its surface characteristics.

Deep encoding

Processing information based on its meaning and the significance of the information.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves imagining placing items around a room or along a route.

Chunking-Grouping

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Categories-Grouping

Grouping information into categories that share common attributes.

Hierarchies-Grouping

Organizing items into a hierarchy, starting with general categories and working down to specific examples.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Massed practice

Cramming information all at once. It is less effective than spaced practice.

Distributed practice

Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods.

Serial position effect

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember information that is presented last.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by making that information meaningful in some way.