AP 1 - Chapter 3

What are the four important Biomolecules

1. Carbohydrates

2. Lipids

3. Proteins

4. Nucleic Acids

What is Biomolecules also known as

Macromolecules

What is Macromolecules made up of

Made up of smaller units called monomers

What is polymers

They are groups of identical monomers joined together

What are organic molecules

they are molecules made up of hydrogen, carbon, and usually oxygen

What type of bond is organic molecules

Covalent Bond (sharing electrons)

What is the structure of organic molecules

Carbon Skeleton + Functional Group = Organic Molecule’s Properties

What is purpose of functional groups

To determine the organic molecules chemical properties, while overall molecule structure determines what type of molecule it is.

What is the four types of functional groups

1. Amino Group

2. Carboxyl Group

3. Hydroxyl Group

4. Phosphate Group

Where is Amino Group Found in

Found in Amino Acids

Where is Carboxyl Group Found in

Found in Amino Acids and Fatty Acids

Where is Hydroxyl Group found in

Found in Amino Acids, Fatty Acids, and Carbohydrates

Where is Phosphate group found in

Nucleic Acids, High energy compounds (ATP), and Phospholipids

What is the chemical makeup of Carbohydrates

Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

• C(H₂O)

What is the purpose of carbohydrates

Most important energy source not as much energy as lipids

What is isomers

They are molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures:

• Ex: Glucose: C₆H₁₂O₆

• Ex: Fructose: C₆H₁₂O₆

What are the three categories of carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides

• Disaccharides

• Polysaccharides

What is monosaccharides

• The most basic unit of simple sugars. Contains 1 sugar unit.

How many carbon atoms can a monosaccharide have and what is the name of each

• Contain 3-7 carbon atoms:

  • 3 Carbon: Triose

  • 4 Carbon: Tetrose

  • 5 Carbon: Pentose

  • 6 Carbon: Hexose

  • 7 Carbon: Heptose

Examples of Monosaccharides

• Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

What is Disaccharides

They are made up of two monosaccharides (through dehydration synthesis)

What are examples of disaccharides

• Sucrose

• Maltose

• Lactose

What is Sucrose made of

Glucose + Fructose

AKA Table Sugar

What is Maltose made of

Glucose + Glucose

AKA Malt Sugar

What is Lactose made of

Glucose + Galactose

AKA Milk Sugar

What is Polysaccharides

They are polymers of many sugars through dehydration synthesis

• They are the storage for glucose

What is the polysaccharides found in humans and where is it stored

• Glycogen

• Stored in the liver and skeletal muscle

What is the polysaccharides found in plants and what is use for each

• Starch: Digest to break down for energy

• Cellulose: Cannot break down, goes through digestive track and aids in moving materials through digestive track

What is chemical makeup of lipids

• contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

• The carbon to hydrogen ratio is 1:2

• contains less oxygen than carbohydrates

• some lipids contain phosphorus

Is lipids hydrophilic or hydrophobic to water

Hydrophobic (insoluble in water)

what is the function of lipids

• structure of cells: cell membrane

• Energy reserves: 2x energy of carbohydrates

What are the 6 classes of lipids

1. Fatty acids

2. Eicosanoids

3. Glycerides

4. Steroids

5. Phospholipids

6. Glycolipids

What are fatty acids and what is chemical makeup.

• Long chains of carbon and hydrogen with a carboxyl group at one end

• Can be saturated and unsaturated

Are fatty acids polar or nonpolar

• Relatively nonpolar, except the carboxyl group

What is saturated fatty acid

Contains only single bonds in the hydrocarbon tail

what are unsaturated fatty acid

Contains one more more double bonds in the hydrocarbon tail

What is the two types of unsaturated bonds

1. Monounsaturated = one double bond

2. Polyunsaturated = two or more double bonds

What are eicosanoids

• They derived from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid which cannot be made in the body and obtained through diet

what are the two classes of eicosanoids

1. Leukotrienes:

   1. Active in immune system and responds to injury or disease

2. Prostaglandins:

   1. Short chain fatty acids. Local hormones

What are glycerides and how is it made

they are fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule. Made through dehydration synthesis

What the three types of glycerides

1. Monoglyceride: Glycerol + 1 Fatty acid

2. Diglyceride: Glycerol + 2 Fatty acid

3. Triglycerides: Glycerol + 3 Fatty acid

What is Triglycerides are the three important functions of it

• Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids

• AKA Triacylglycerols or neutral fats

• Functions: energy source, insulation, protection

What are steroids

• Four-ringed carbon structures + various functional groups

What are examples of Steroids

1. Cholesterol: Component of cell (plasma) membrane

2. Sex Hormones: Estrogen and Testosterone

3. Steroid Hormones: Corticosteroids and calcitriol

4. Steroid Derivatives called bile salts which is necessary for digestion of dietary fats

What is phospholipids and glycolipids and what is their function

• they are structural lipids meaning they make the cell (plasma) membrane.

• made by our cells

• contain a diglyceride + a phosphate group = Phospholipid

• contain a diglyceride + a sugar (carbohydrate) group = glycolipid

What are the characteristics of phospholipids and glycolipids

Generally both have hydrophillic heads and hydrophobic tails

What are proteins and what is it made of

• most important and abundant organic molecule and contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

• made up of 20 amino acids (monomers) that combine to form proteins (polymers)

7 Functions of proteins

1. Support: Structural proteins: collagen

2. Movement: Contractile proteins: actin and myosin

3. Transport: Transport (carrier) proteins

4. Buffering

5. Metabolic Regulation: Enzymes

6. Coordination and Control: Hormones

7. Defense: Antibodies

What is amino acid structure

• proteins are long chains of amino acids where each amino acid consist of:

  • central carbon atom

  • hydrogen atom

  • amino group

  • carboxyl group

  • Variable side chain aka R group

what process occurs in order to make proteins

proteins are made by combining multiple amino acids together through dehydration synthesis.

• The amino group of one amino acid combines with the carboxyl group of another amino acid

What is the bond between amino acids

Peptide bond. the resulting molecule from the bonding of amino acid is called a peptide

What is polypeptides

Are tripeptides and greater. (3+ amino acids)

What are the four shapes of proteins

1. Primary

2. Secondary

3. Tertiary

4. Quaternary

What is primary structure of proteins

The sequence of amino acids along a polypeptide (likes beads on a string)

What is the secondary structure of proteins

Through hydrogen bonds formation of spirals or pleats (like coils and sheets)

What is Tertiary structure of proteins

Coiling and folding that produce a 3D shape (one folded up chain)

What is Quaternary Structure of proteins

Final protein complex produced by interacting polypeptide chains (multiple folded chains)

What is globular protein

Describes a shape where the polypeptide chain folds up tightly into something like a ball with active functions. Shape is based on tertiary structure. They are generally soluable in water.

Ex: Hemoglobin

What is Fibrous protein

Describes a shape where polypeptide chains form long strands or sheets. Shape is based on secondary or quaternary structure. They are generally not soluble in water.

Ex: Collagen

What are enzymes

They are catalyst that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction. They speed up a chemical reaction. Enzymes are not changed or used up during the reaction. Substrates bind to active site on enyzme.

What are the characteristics of enyzmes

• Specificity: catalyze only one type of reaction

• Saturation Limits: Enzymes become saturated. Rate of reaction levels off once the enzymes are saturated with the substrate. This means that all the enzymes are currently busy so adding more substrate will not make reaction go any faster.

• Regulation: can be controlled by other cellular chemicals to control the enzyme whether that is to speed up, slow down, stop.. etc.

  • There are cofactors (substance) that can help enzyme function properly.

What are cofactors for enzyme function and examples

Cofactor is an ion or molecule thats binds to an enzyme before substrates can bind. They are often ions or metals.

Ex: Ca⁺²

Ex: Mg⁺²

What are coenzymes

They are non-protein organic cofactors (Vitamins). Many are derivatives of Vitamin B.

What factors affect enzyme function

Temperature and pH

What is ideal temperature and pH for enzyme to function

98.6 degrees (body temp) and pH of 7 (physiological pH)

What happens to enzyme when it goes away from ideal conditions

Denaturation - Change in shape resulting in a loss of function resulting from change in heat or pH

What is Glycoproteins

combinations of proteins and carbohydrates. Glycoproteins are made up of:

• Large proteins + Small Carbohydrates

What is Proteoglycans

combinations of proteins and carbohydrates. Proteoglycans are made up of:

• Polypeptides (core proteins) + Large Polysaccharides (large carbohydrate)

What is 5 function of Glycoproteins

Enzymes, antibodies, hormones, components of cell membranes, and mucus production

What is function of Proteoglycans

increase viscosity of fluids

What is nucleic acid

Large organic molecules found in the nucleus that store and process information.

What are the types of nucleic acid

1. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid

2. RNA: Ribonucleic Acid

What are the characteristic of DNA and what does it do

• Determines inherited characteristics

• Directs protein synthesis (has the instructions of protein synthesis)

• controls enzyme production (basically meaning protein synthesis since enzyme is a protein. (has the instructions)

• controls metabolism

What are the characteristic of RNA and what does it do

• controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis. They carry out the instructions in the DNA of protein synthesis.

What is the structure of nucleic acids

• They are made up of nucleotides (monomers) that make up the DNA and RNA.

What is a pair of nucleotide chains called

Complementary strands

What holds the nucleotide chains together

hydrogen bonding between opposing nitrogenous based hold the strand together

What is the shape of DNA

twisting double helix

What is the shape of RNA

Consist a single chain of nucleotides. The shape varies with hydrogen bonding and sequence of nucleotides and interactions among them.

What are three types of RNA and functions

• Protein synthesis

• Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Makes/copies the message from DNA to ribosome

• Transfer RNA (tRNA): Brings correct amino acid to ribosome from instructions.

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Major part of Ribosome and read tehs instructions.

What is the makeup of Nucleotides

• Nucleotides = A Pentose Sugar (5 Carbon) + Phosphate Group + Nitrogenous Base

  • Note: The Pentose Sugar is different for DNA (Deoxyribose) and RNA (Ribose)

What are the two Purines

• Adenine

• Guanine

What are the 3 Pyrimidines and which is DNA only and Which is RNA only

• Thymine (DNA ONLY)

• Cytosine

• Uracil (RNA ONLY)

Rule of complementary base pairs of DNA and which bind with which

• Purines pairs with pyrimidines

• Adenine (A) binds with Thymine (T)

• Cytosine (C) binds with Guanine (G)

Rule of RNA

Uracil (U) replaces Thymine (T)

What makes high-energy compounds

Nucleotides

What is phosphorylation

The process of adding a phosphate group to another molecule. This produces a high-energy bond

What are the three high-energy compounds/molecule and how many phosphate group are there

• Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP): 1 Phosphate group

• Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP): 2 Phosphate group

• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): 3 Phosphate group

What is the enzyme that breaks down ATP

Adenosine Triphosphatase (ATPase) which breaks ATP to ADP + 1 Phosphate