Introduction to American Public Policy Midterm Review

Public Policy

What public officials within the government, and by extension the citizens they represent, choose to do or not to do about public problems

Policy

Purposive course of action that an individual or group consistently follows in dealing with a problem

Language used to discuss public policy

Intentions - purposes for gov action

Goals - stated ends to be achieved

Plans or Proposals - means for achieving goals

Programs - authorized means for pursuing goals

Decisions or Choices - specific actions that are taken to set goals, develop plans, or implement programs

Policy outputs

Formal actions that government takes to pursue their goals

Policy outcomes

Effects that actions of government have on society

Policy Analysis

Study of causes and consequences of policy decisions

Government

Institutions and political processes which public policy choices are made - legal authority to govern over people

Politics

Exercise of power in society or in specific decisions over public policy

Context of public policy

Political context

Economic context

Cultural Context

Governing Context

Social Context

All intertwined in diagram

Core values

Freedom, equality, security, efficiency

Reasons for Government Involvement

Political Involvement - re-election, calling out gov

Moral Involvement - healthcare, education

Economic Involvment - market failure

Market Failure

Free market fails to allocate goods

Four types of Market Failure

Existence of monopolies

Information Failure

Externalities

Public Good

Information Failure

A lack of information resulting in consumers and producers making decisions that do not maximise welfare

Positive Externalities

2 parties interact, 3rd outside party gets a benefit

Negative Externalities

2 parties interact, 3rd party gets a disadvantage

Public Good

a shared good or service for which it would be impractical to make consumers pay individually and to exclude nonpayers

Pure Private goods

Exclusion feasible, no joint consumption, no market failure

Ex: computer, house

Toll goods

Exclusion feasible, joint consumption, infinite, paid

Ex: cable tv, electricity

Common pool resources

Exclusion is not feasible, no joint consumption, natural things

Ex: water, air

Pure public goods

Exclusion is not feasible, joint consumption

Ex: national parks

Representative Democracy

A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people.

Refrendum

a way for citizens to vote on state or local laws

American Ideals

Huntington 1982: American identity deeply rooted in ideals - liberty, equality, individualism, democracy, rule of law

American Institutions

While American ideals are aspirational, institutions that govern the country reflect practical realities about people, compromise, and hierarchy

Periods of Reform and Conflict

Gap between ideals and institutions, periods where they attempted to bridge that gap: Abolition, civil rights, women and suffrage

1776 and 1789: Atlantic Revolution

American and French Revolution replaced ideas of monarchy with popular sovereignty and government by consent

Second Founding

Reconstruction Era:

13th Amendment - abolished slavery

14th Amendment - birthright citizenship

15th Amendment - Black people could bote

Federalism

System of government divided by federal government and states

Bicameralism

Two-house congress - Senate and House of Representatives

Unequal Representation in Congress

Senate - same number of people despite population and size of states

Electoral Systems in the U.S

U.S - vote for the people

Other - vote for the party

Political stability, effective protection of democratic rights

Democratic fairness fosters conversation building, promotes effective problem solving -- mixed record

Constitution

Fragments power vertically and horizontally, provides basic framework on many important matters

From when to when did the government grow?

18th Century to 19th Century, complexity of society caused growth of government

Incremental policymaking

Small, gradual changes to existing laws, the norm

Dual Federalism

Separate states of power, used in 18th century

Cooperative Federalism

Systems work together, norm

Block grants

Federal funding: fixed set of money to state to spend on whatever

Categorical grants

Federal Funding: funds given with strict rules on how to spend them

Unfunded Mandates

Federal funding: Federal requirements placed on states without money to implement

Executive Branch - 3 main catefories of making laws

Lawmaking through Congress- harder to get rid of

Executive Action - proclomations

Leading through Rhetoric - giving speeches, (State of Union Address), Diplomacy

Where does it talk about the President's powers in the Constitution?

Article 2

Formal Powers of President

Commander-in-chief, faithfully implement and administer law, executive power, make treaties (2/3 Senate needed), appoint judges and major executive branch officials (Senate), Pardons, veto legislation

President expanded their authority/power overtime

Informal Powers

Power to persuade, bargaining, negotiation

Role of President in 19th Century

Small role in domestic policymaking, limited to international policy

Role of President in 20th Century

Greater authority to influence - greater delegation, increased role in foreign affairs for U.S, mass media

Three types of executive orders

Policy Orders - change existing policy

Orders Creating New Agencies - new guidelines, create new agencies

Symbolic Orders - medals, seals, honor people who passed away

How many executive departments are there?

How many federal agencies?

15 Executive Departments, 438 Federal Agencies

Bureaucracy

A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials

Implementation of law, monitor compliance with the law

Delegation

Bureaucracy fills in details of legislation when necessary

3 types of Bureaucratic Agencies

Cabinet Level

Independent Executive

Independent Regulatory Commissary - specific sector relating to money

Factors that shape presidential power

Party control in Congress, time of term, election cycle, issue (foreign v. domestic), public approval, national events, informal abilities, presidential leadership

Difference between Congress and President

Separate institutions - results in divide

Difference in term Limit

Congress members are more susceptible to public interests

Congress and It's functions

Representation

Legislation - authorization + appropriation

Oversight - ensuring executive authority is executing law

Senate v. House

Senate - 100 members, 6-year term

House - 435 members, 2-year terms

Filibuster

A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.

Bill to Law Process

Congress: The Basics

Parties structure everything - majority party has agenda control

- Party loyalty higher than in previous decades

Goals of Congress

reelection, make good public policy, advance their career

Party leaders

Speaker + majority leader have power over legislative agenda

BUT members can band together to limit party leaders power

Why so much polarization?

1. ideologically sorted (no more moderates)

2. votes to send a message, emphasis on polarization

3. Activists, media, outside pressure

4. Members come from safe districts - less incentives

5. Fewer congress members socialize with one another

What can President do if Congress doesn't listen?

Unilateral Action

Go Public

Give up, pivot to other issues

Who makes Policy?

Congress, President, Courts, Interest groups?

Courts and Policymaking

Interpret, legislate, setting precedent

Least dangerous to political rights of Constitution - Federalist 78. Hamilton

Supreme Court of the United States

9 Judges (by Federal law, not Constitution) , Lifetime appointments, Final arbiter of federal statutory and constitutional law, no right to be heard, no formal ethical rules

Power of Supreme Court

Institutionally more insulated from public opinion compared to Congress or President

Judicial review, perceived legitimacy, higher public approval than congress or president most of the time, government expansion and new laws = new areas for judicial involvement

Limitations of Supreme Court

Policymaking limited to reactive behavior, no formal enforcement power, desire to preserve legitimacy

Judicial Review

Allows the court to determine the constitutionality of laws

Structure of Courts in United States

13 Court of appeals

Covers specific region to handle major trials or review legal appeals

94 District Courts

Lowest general trial courts, where legal cases begin

Precendent and Stare Decisis

The doctrine of stare decisis means that courts look to past, similar issues to guide their decisions

Expanding or limiting rights - Judiciary Branch

Free speech, privacy, discrimination, decisions shape societal norms and government policies

Emergency Docket

Courts can act quickly without full briefing or oral argument - raises broader questions about transparency and powers of Supreme Court

Majoritarian Electoral Democracy

Policy reflects average citizens and median voters

Economic-Elite Domination

Policy reflects wealthy individuals

Majoritarian Pluralism

Competition among diverse interest groups represent citizens

Biased Pluralism

Interest group system disproportionately favors business and professional interests

Why Interest Groups?

Collective Action Problems: Forming organization with like-minded people makes sense, strength in numbers to acheive a goal

BUT rational from individuals to freeride and not contribute

Solutions for freeride problem for interest groups

Coercion - employment restriction, peer pressure

Material benefits - events, discounts

Social benefits - like-minded people

Psychological benefits - sense of efficacy and belonging

Argument of Schattschneider 1960

Politics is about control and expansion of conflict, conflicts can either be contained (localized) or expanded (brought to a larger audience), outcome depends on how the scope of conflict changes

Scope of Conflict

size, scale, reach of disagreement or dispute - number of people, groups, individuals, at stake

Spectator Role

Position where citizens or groups monitor, observe, or react to political and regulatory developments

Role of Parties

They play a central role in shaping conflicts and determining who participates in politics

Bias

A particular preference or point of view that is personal, rather than scientific.

Agenda-setting

power of news, media, government to determine which issues people think about

Political theories vs. Political models

Political theories - attempts to explain why things happen the way they do

Political models - more descriptive, less concerned with explanation

Elite theory

A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization.

Group (pluralist) theory

the view that a large number of diverse groups control government and politics and promote policies to serve their particular interests

Institutional theory

theory that organizations operate according to taken-for-granted institutional norms and rules

Rational-choice theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

Political systems theory

A policymaking theory that stresses the way the political system responds to demands that arise from its environment, such as public opinion and interest group pressures. Systems theory emphasizes the larger social, economic, and cultural context in which political decisions and policy choices are made.

Lobbying

Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact.

Insider Strategies

Requires person access to government officials, aimed at directly influencing officials and policy by drafting legislation, doing research, participating in hearings and litigation

Outsider Strategies

Generate public support for a cause, pressure officials, protests, media ads, conference, letters to politicians, grassroots lobbying, ballot measures

Why do Interest groups lobby congress>

Provide information to elected officials, gain access to elected officials, change public conversation around a topic, buy votes in Congress (unlikely), elect ideological allies

Interest groups often contact congressional allies - not politicians - who can be convinced

Coaltion

a combination, union, or merger for some specific purpose

Iron Triangle

Agenda Setting Theories

Multiple Streams Approach

Agenda-Setting

Punctuated Equilibrium Theory