AP Government Unit 2: Branches of Government and Federal Bureaucracy

Comprehensive practice flashcards reviewing the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, the federal bureaucracy, required Supreme Court cases, and foundational documents for AP Government Unit 2.

How is representation structured in the House of Representatives versus the Senate?

The House of Representatives has $435$ members apportioned by state population who serve $2$-year terms under strict debate rules led by the Speaker of the House. The Senate has $100$ members ($2$ per state) who serve $6$-year terms under looser debate rules.

How does the staggered election cycle of the Senate affect its function?

Every $2$ years, one-third of the Senate is up for reelection, which creates a continuously changing legislative body and insulates senators from the short-term whims of the public.

What is the difference between Congress's enumerated powers and implied powers?

Enumerated powers are explicit powers listed in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution (such as taxing, declaring war, and regulating interstate commerce). Implied powers are granted through the Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause) to pass laws needed to support enumerated powers.

What are the four types of congressional committees?

1. Standing committees (permanent committees handling recurring issues like budget or armed forces).
2. Select committees (temporary committees formed to investigate specific non-repeated issues, e.g., the Watergate investigation).
3. Joint committees (bicameral committees uniting members of both chambers on broad issues like taxation).
4. Conference committees (temporary bicameral committees formed to reconcile different versions of the same bill).

What role does the House Rules Committee play in the legislative process?

It acts as the most powerful committee in the House by setting the terms of debate, deciding what amendments can be offered, and scheduling bills on the legislative calendar. It can effectively kill a bill by refusing to schedule it.

What is a discharge petition, and what threshold must be met to enact it?

A procedural mechanism in the House that can force a bill out of a committee directly to the floor for a vote, requiring a majority signature of $218$ representatives.

What is the purpose of the Committee of the Whole in the House of Representatives?

It is a procedure where all present House members form one large committee to debate legislation under more relaxed rules to expedite the legislative process.

What is a filibuster in the Senate, and how can it be ended?

A procedural delaying technique permitted by the Senate's lack of debate time limits, where a senator extends debate to delay or prevent a vote. It can only be ended by invoking the cloture rule, which requires a three-fifths vote of $60$ out of $100$ senators.

What distinguishes mandatory spending from discretionary spending in the federal budget?

Mandatory spending is required by law to fund entitlement programs (such as Social Security or Medicaid) that Congress must pay. Discretionary spending is the money remaining after mandatory obligations and is spent on optional programs and projects.

What are pork barrel tactics and logrolling in Congress?

Pork barrel tactics refer to a representative securing specific funding within an appropriations bill for projects directly benefiting their own constituents. Logrolling is the practice of members of Congress trading votes or political favors to pass legislation.

What was established by the Supreme Court in Baker v. Carr (1961/1962)?

The Court ruled that Tennessee's outdated voting districts violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, establishing the "one person, one vote" principle requiring voting districts to have roughly equal populations.

What did the Supreme Court rule in Shaw v. Reno (1993)?

The Court prohibited strict racial gerrymandering, deciding that drawing oddly shaped voting districts with race as the primary factor violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

How do the trustee, delegate, and politico models of representation differ?

A trustee votes based on their own judgment and knowledge; a delegate votes strictly according to the preferences of their constituents; and a politico acts as a delegate on issues with high public interest and as a trustee on complex or low-salience issues.

What is divided government, and how does a lame duck president affect it?

Divided government occurs when one political party controls the presidency while the opposition controls at least one chamber of Congress, causing policy gridlock. This gridlock intensifies when the president is a lame duck (having only a few months left after a successor is elected), as Congress has little incentive to cooperate.

What options does the president have when receiving a bill passed by Congress?

The president can sign it into law, veto it, or do nothing. If the president does nothing for $10$ days while Congress is in session, the bill automatically becomes law; if Congress adjourns within those $10$ days, it results in a pocket veto.

What vote is required for Congress to override a presidential veto?

A $\frac{2}{3}$ supermajority vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.

What are the informal powers of the president?

Informal powers include executive agreements (international pacts not requiring Senate ratification), executive orders (directives instructing agencies on law execution), signing statements (written statements detailing how the executive intends to enforce a law), and bargaining/persuasion via the bully pulpit.

What argument did Alexander Hamilton present in Federalist No. 70?

Hamilton argued for a single, energetic executive rather than a council because a unitary president ensures efficiency, decisiveness ("energy"), and clear accountability if executive abuses occur.

Which presidential appointments require Senate confirmation under the Advice and Consent Clause?

Cabinet department secretaries, federal ambassadors, certain heads within the Executive Office of the President, and federal judges at the District, Circuit, and Supreme Court levels.

What are the three tiers of the federal court system and their jurisdictions?

U.S. District Courts have original jurisdiction; U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals have appellate jurisdiction; and the U.S. Supreme Court possesses both original and appellate jurisdiction.

Why did Alexander Hamilton describe the judiciary as the "least dangerous branch" in Federalist No. 78?

Because the judicial branch possesses "no influence over either the sword or the purse," lacking military force and budget control, and depends entirely on the executive branch to enforce its judgments.

How was judicial review established in the United States?

Judicial review—the power of federal courts to declare legislative acts or executive actions unconstitutional—was defended theoretically by Hamilton in Federalist No. 78 and formally established by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (1803).

What is stare decisis?

A Latin legal principle meaning "let the decision stand," which obligates courts to adhere to established legal precedents when ruling on subsequent cases with similar facts.

What is the difference between judicial activism and judicial restraint?

Judicial activism is the willingness of judges to overturn precedent and invalidate legislative/executive acts, often considering broader social consequences. Judicial restraint holds that judges should defer to precedent and the text of the Constitution, leaving policy making to elected branches.

What are five constitutional checks on the Supreme Court?

1. Passing legislation that modifies the impact of a ruling (e.g., the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993).
2. Proposing and ratifying constitutional amendments (e.g., the Thirteenth Amendment overturning Dred Scott v. Sanford).
3. Presidential appointments shifting ideological balances.
4. Executive or state delays in implementation (e.g., Southern states stalling desegregation after Brown v. Board).
5. Congressional alteration or limitation of court jurisdiction.

What four types of entities make up the federal bureaucracy?

1. The $15$ Cabinet departments (led by secretaries to oversee broad policy areas).
2. Independent executive agencies (focused on specialized missions, like NASA).
3. Independent regulatory commissions (boards of experts creating industry regulations and issuing fines).
4. Government corporations (entities that charge fees to sustain operations, like the U.S. Postal Service).

How did the federal civil service shift from the patronage system to a merit-based system?

Under the patronage (spoils) system used heavily during Andrew Jackson's presidency, jobs were handed out to political supporters and cronies. In the late 19th century, civil service reform replaced patronage with a merit system based on competitive exams, specialized expertise, and political neutrality.

What is delegated discretionary authority in the federal bureaucracy?

The power transferred from Congress to bureaucratic agencies that allows policy experts to interpret broad legislative statutes, formulate specific enforceable rules, and levy compliance fines carrying the force of law.

What are the three components of an Iron Triangle?

An Iron Triangle consists of mutually beneficial, enduring relationships among bureaucratic agencies, congressional committees, and interest groups working to develop and protect policy in a specific area.

How does an issue network differ from an iron triangle?

An iron triangle is a rigid, permanent three-part alliance, whereas an issue network is a broader, more fluid, and temporary coalition of diverse groups and experts united to address a single public policy issue.

What checks does Congress have over the federal bureaucracy?

Congress can use committee oversight hearings to investigate agency officials, use the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to audit agency spending, and cut or condition agency funding using the power of the purse.