Caribbean Geography, Hazards, and Sustainable Development

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering Caribbean topography, natural hazards, plate tectonics, coastal systems, soil conservation, and regional tourism economics.

Why did early European settlers primarily establish settlements on the western side of Caribbean islands?

The western side of the islands is sheltered and the sea is calm, making it ideal for a port, because the prevailing North East Trade Winds are blocked by the mountainous interior.

Where did the Maroons in Jamaica flee to escape plantation owners, and why was this location advantageous?

They fled to the hills, which were covered in forest and difficult to navigate, making it an ideal place to hide from plantation owners.

What industrial and economic changes in the 1970s, particularly in Trinidad, forced farmers to relocate to hillsides?

An increase in manufacturing industries required flat former plantation and agricultural land for factory buildings, while rising land prices and residential demands also pushed agricultural cultivation onto hillside slopes.

What four criteria determine when a hazardous event is classified as a disaster?

An event is classified as a disaster when one or more of the following apply: 1. $10$ or more persons have died; 2. $100$ or more persons have been reported affected; 3. A state of emergency has been declared; 4. A call has been made for international aid.

What are the five main categories of hazards identified in Caribbean Studies?

1. Seismic (earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis); 2. Meteorological / Hydrological (floods, storms, high winds); 3. Geomorphological (landslides, silting of rivers, beach erosion); 4. Biological (diseases, plant and animal invasions, fires); 5. Technological (pollution, fires, poor infrastructure, explosions).

According to this diagram of the disaster management cycle, which three stages make up the pre-disaster phase, and which three make up the post-disaster phase?

The pre-disaster phase consists of Prevention, Mitigation, and Preparedness. The post-disaster phase consists of Response, Recovery, and Redevelopment.

What are the four structural layers of the Earth shown here, and what are their physical characteristics?

From surface to center: 1. Crust (solid rock layer, thickness between $3$ and $30\text{ miles}$); 2. Mantle (semi-liquid molten magma moving due to convection currents, the thickest layer); 3. Outer Core (liquid/semi-solid part under high temperature and pressure); 4. Inner Core (solid center made of iron and nickel, reaching temperatures of $5{,}500^\bot\text{C}$).

What type of plate margin is represented in this block diagram, and what is the only seismic hazard that occurs along it?

A transform or conservative plate boundary, where plates slide horizontally past one another; earthquakes are the only seismic hazard occurring at these margins.

What geological boundary process is illustrated along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in this diagram?

A divergent or constructive plate boundary involving seafloor spreading, where two plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and solidify to form new oceanic crust (with the youngest rocks at the ridge and older crust further away).

In the subduction zone cross-section shown, how did islands like Barbados form on the fore-arc ridge?

Barbados formed as an accretionary wedge (or prism) when accumulated marine sediments on the subducting plate were scraped off, compressed, and folded upward until they broke the sea surface.

What is soil liquefaction, and what major example of its destructiveness is cited in the notes?

Soil liquefaction occurs when water-logged soil or reclaimed land responds to earthquake vibrations by behaving like a liquid, causing buildings to sink; in Mexico City (built on a former lakebed), building foundations sank into liquefied material, resulting in the deaths of about $10{,}000$ people.

What examples of aseismic engineering designs in Trinidad are noted in the lecture?

Shock absorbers in the foundation at the Twin Towers in Port of Spain (POS), and sway-tolerant structural designs at the Nicholas Tower and the overpass by Grand Bazaar.

How many 'live' volcanoes are located in the Eastern Caribbean, and where are all Caribbean volcanoes situated?

All Caribbean volcanoes are located in the Lesser Antilles arc (spanning from Grenada to Saba), with $19$ 'live' (active or dormant but likely to erupt again) volcanic centers.

What is the difference between a pyroclastic flow and a lahar?

A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving (over $500\,\text{km/h}$) superheated cloud of volcanic ash, steam, and toxic gases flowing down slopes during an eruption, whereas a lahar is a volcanic mudslide formed when volcanic ash mixes with rainwater, which can occur long after an eruption has ceased.

What is the historical recurrence interval of tsunamis in the Caribbean, and when was the last recorded event?

Tsunamis occur at an average rate of $1$ every $50\,\text{years}$ in the Caribbean over the last $200\,\text{years}$; the last recorded one occurred in Grenada in $1965$, triggered by the Kick 'Em Jenny submarine volcano.

According to NOAA (2018), what depth of rushing tsunami water is required to knock an adult off their feet and to carry away a car?

$6\,\text{inches}$ of rushing water can knock an adult off their feet, and $12\,\text{inches}$ can carry away a car.

Why is Georgetown, Guyana particularly prone to coastal flooding during high tides?

Georgetown lies below average sea level, making it susceptible to daily high tides and storm surges without protective dykes and seawalls.

What atmospheric and oceanic conditions are necessary for hurricane genesis?

1. Warm open ocean waters of at least $26^\circ\text{C}$; 2. Upper-level outflow of air allowing surface-level inflow of warm, moist air; 3. A sufficient Coriolis force to sustain cyclonic wind rotation.

Why do Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana avoid hurricanes?

They lie between $10^\circ\text{N}$ and $10^\circ\text{S}$ of the equator, where the Coriolis force is insufficient to generate and maintain the spiralling rotation required for tropical storms and hurricanes.

What rainfall mechanism is depicted in this diagram?

Relief (orographic) rainfall, where moisture-laden air is forced to rise over elevated terrain, cools and condenses to produce precipitation on the windward side, and sinks as dry, warmed air on the leeward side creating a rain shadow.

What percentage breakdown describes the regional water supply in the Caribbean?

Approximately $76\%$ comes from surface water (rivers, dams, reservoirs, crater lakes), approximately $24\%$ from underground aquifers, and less than $1\%$ from desalination plants.

According to the classification scheme by Morgan (1986), what are the three overarching approaches to soil conservation on cultivated land?

1. Agronomic measures (mulching, crop management); 2. Soil management (conservation tillage); 3. Engineering methods (lined waterways, terraces, hillside ditches).

What are the three core criteria required for agricultural practices to be deemed sustainable?

Agriculture must be economically viable, environmentally sound, and socially acceptable.

What environmental damage is shown in this photograph, and what global change drives it?

Coral bleaching, which occurs when corals expel symbiotic algae due to elevated sea surface temperatures driven by global warming.

What environmental conditions are necessary for healthy coral reef development?

Water temperatures between $21^\circ\text{C}$ and $30^\circ\text{C}$, shallow depths allowing adequate sunlight penetration, stable marine salinity, and clean water free of suspended sediments or excessive nutrients.

What socioeconomic role does the fishing industry serve in rural Caribbean coastal communities?

It employs over $180{,}000$ people across the region, provides critical food security and dietary protein, and contributes up to $8\%$ of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in export earnings for certain islands.

What geopolitical event in 1959 catalyzed the rapid expansion of Puerto Rico's tourism industry in the early 1960s?

The Cuban Revolution of $1959$, which led to the demise of Cuba's dominant pre-WWII tourist trade and redirected travel flows toward Puerto Rico and later the Bahamas and U.S. Virgin Islands.

What proportions of regional Gross National Product (GNP) and export earnings are generated by Caribbean tourism as a whole?

Tourism generates at least $10\%$ of the region's overall GNP and roughly $20\%$ of its total export earnings.

How does tourism dependency vary across different Caribbean territories?

Tourism produces $70\text{--}80\%$ of legal GNP in the Bahamas and Cayman Islands and $35\text{--}50\%$ in Barbados, Antigua, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, but less than $10\%$ in countries like Trinidad and Tobago, Dominica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.

What geographic markets supply the majority of tourists visiting the Caribbean?

Almost two-thirds ($\approx 66\%$) originate from the United States, $8\%$ come from Canada, and $10\%$ come from Europe.