explaining female crime

• Whether or not the criminal justice system is more l____ towards women, as the chivalry thesis claims, women in general do seem to have a l____ r____ of offending than men.

• Sociologists seek to e____ the b_____ of those women who do commit crimes

• Before, The first explanations of gender differences in crime were b____ rather than s____. For example, L____ and F_____ (1893) argued that c____ is i____, but that there were very few 'born f____ criminals'. Some more recent psychological explanations have also argued that b____ factors such as higher levels of t____ in males can a____ for g____ d_____ in v____ offending

• However, sociologists take what view about gender differences in offending?

Sociologists have put forward three main explanations of female crime

• Whether or not the criminal justice system is more lenient towards women, as the chivalry thesis claims, women in general do seem to have a lower rate of offending than men.

• Sociologists seek to explain the behaviour of those women who do commit crimes

• Before, The first explanations of gender differences in crime were biological rather than sociological. For example, Lombroso and Ferrero (1893) argued that criminality is innate, but that there were very few 'born female criminals'. Some more recent psychological explanations have also argued that biological factors such as higher levels of testosterone in males can account for gender differences in violent offending

• However, sociologists take the view that social rather than biological factors are the cause of gender differences in offending.

Sociologists have put forward three main explanations of female crime/gender differences

1. sex role theory ( more criticised and the other 2 are chemist approaches)

2. patriarchal control theory

3. the liberation thesis.

Functionalist sex role theory

• Early sociological explanations of gender differences in crime focused on differences in the s_____ of males and females.

• For example, boys are encouraged to be t____, a____ and r___ t___, and this can mean they are more d___ to commit acts of v____ or take a____ of c___ o____ when presented

• Functionalist T____ P____ (1955) traces gender differences in crime back to what?

• While men take what role? performed l____ outside the home, women perform the what? role in the h____, where they take the m____ r____ for socialising the children.

• While this gives girls access to what? Parsons argues, it tends to mean that boys reject f___ m____ of behaviour that express t___, g____ and e___.

• Instead, boys seek to d____ themselves from such models by engaging in 'c_____ c____ m____' through an_____ and a____-s_____ behaviour, which can slip over into acts of d____.

Functionalist sex role theory

• Early sociological explanations of gender differences in crime focused on differences in the socialisation of males and females.

• For example, boys are encouraged to be tough, aggressive and risk taking, and this can mean they are more disposed to commit acts of violence or take advantage of criminal opportunities when presented

• Functionalist Talcott Parsons (1955) traces gender differences in crime back to the gender roles in the conventional nuclear family.

• While men take the instrumental, breadwinner role, performed largely outside the home, women perform the expressive role in the home, where they take the main responsibility for socialising the children.

• While this gives girls access to an adult role model, Parsons argues, it tends to mean that boys reject feminine models of behaviour that express tenderness, gentleness and emotion.

• Instead, boys seek to distance themselves from such models by engaging in 'compensatory compulsory masculinity' through aggression and anti-social behaviour, which can slip over into acts of delinquency.

Functionalist sex role theory

• Because men have much less of a s_____ r_____ than women in the c____ n_____ family, s____ can be more d____ for b____ than for girls.

• According to C_____ (1955), this relative lack of an adult male role model means boys are more likely to do what?

• As we saw in Topic 1, in these s_____ g_____, status is earned by acts of t____, r____-t____ and d____

• Similarly, N____ R____ theorists argue that the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent families leads to what?

Functionalist sex role theory

• Because men have much less of a socialising role than women in the conventional nuclear family, socialisation can be more difficult for boys than for girls.

• According to Cohen (1955), this relative lack of an adult male role model means boys are more likely to turn to all-male street gangs as a source of masculine identity.

• As we saw in Topic 1, in these subcultural groups, status is earned by acts of toughness, risk-taking and delinquency.

• Similarly, New Right theorists argue that the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent families leads to boys turning to criminal street gangs as a source of status and identity.

Functionalist sex role theory → 〤criticisms

〤- W____ (2003) criticises sex role theory for its b____ a____.

• According to W___, Parsons assumes that because women have the b____ c____ to bear children, they are best suited to the e____ r____.

• Thus, although the theory tries to explain gender differences in crime in terms of behaviour learned through socialisation, it is ultimately based on what?

More recently, feminists have put forward alternative explanations for women's patterns of crime and deviance. Feminists locate their explanations in the p____ (m___-d____) nature of society and women's s____ p___ in it.

From this, we can distinguish between two main feminist approaches- what are they?

Functionalist sex role theory → 〤criticisms

〤- Walklate (2003) criticises sex role theory for its biological assumptions.

• According to Walklate, Parsons assumes that because women have the biological capacity to bear children, they are best suited to the expressive role.

• Thus, although the theory tries to explain gender differences in crime in terms of behaviour learned through socialisation, It is ultimately based on untested biological assumptions about sex differences.

More recently, feminists have put forward alternative explanations for women's patterns of crime and deviance. Feminists locate their explanations in the patriarchal (male-dominated) nature of society and women's subordinate position in it.

From this, we can distinguish between two main feminist approaches:

• control theory

• the liberation thesis.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control

• Heidensohn (1996) argues that the most striking thing about women's behaviour is how conformist it is - what does conformist mean and how does this relate to how women act?

• In her view, this is because patriarchal society imposes g____ c____ over women and this r____ their o___ to offend.

This patriarchal control operates in what 3 spaces?

Heidensohn: patriarchal control

• Heidensohn (1996) argues that the most striking thing about women's behaviour is how conformist it is - Conformist means following the rules and behaving according to society’s expectations. Women are more law-abiding than men. They commit fewer crimes and less serious crimes because they generally stick to social norms.

• In her view, this is because patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and this reduces their opportunities to offend.

This patriarchal control operates

1. at home

2. in public spaces

3. at work

Heidensohn: patriarchal control → Control at home

• Women's d____ r____, with c____ r_____ of h____ and childcare, imposes s_____ r_____ on their t____ and movement and c____ them to the house for long periods, reducing their o____ to o____.

• Women who try to reject their domestic role may find what?

• As D_____ and D____ (1979) show, many violent attacks result from men's d____ with their wives' performance of d____ d____.

• Men also exercise c____ through their f____ p____, for example by denying women s_____ f____ for l____ activities, thereby r______ their time o_____ the h____.

• Therefore, Their d____ r____ keeps them busy with h____ and c____, leaving little t____ to offend.

• Women commit fewer and less serious crimes not necessarily because they are m____ better, but because patriarchal control restricts their o____.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control → Control at home

• Women's domestic role, with constant rounds of housework and childcare, imposes severe restrictions on their time and movement and confines them to the house for long periods, reducing their opportunities to offend.

• Women who try to reject their domestic role may find that their partners seek to impose it by force, through domestic violence.

• As Dobash and Dobash (1979) show, many violent attacks result from men's dissatisfaction with their wives' performance of domestic duties.

• Men also exercise control through their financial power, for example by denying women sufficient funds for leisure activities, thereby restricting their time outside the home.

• Therefore, Their domestic role keeps them busy with housework and childcare, leaving little time to offend.

• Women commit fewer and less serious crimes not necessarily because they are morally better, but because patriarchal control restricts their opportunities.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control → Control at home

• Daughters too are subject to p____ control.

• Girls are less likely to be allowed to do what things?

• As a result, they develop a 'b_____ c____', s____ at h____ with f____ rather than in p____ s____.

• Girls are also required to do more h____ than boys.

• As a result, they have less o____ to engage in what.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control → Control at home

• Daughters too are subject to patriarchal control.

• Girls are less likely to be allowed to come and go as they please or to stay out late.

• As a result, they develop a 'bedroom culture', socialising at home with friends rather than in public spaces.

• Girls are also required to do more housework than boys.

• As a result, they have less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the streets.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control → Control in public

• Women are controlled in public places how?

• For example, the I____ C____ S____ found that ____% of women avoided going out after d____ for fear of being v__ of crime, as against only __% of men.

• H____ notes that s____ m____ r____ of r___ adds to women's fear. D____ m____ p____ of the typical r____ as a stranger who carries out r___ a___ frightens women into s__ i____.

• Females are also controlled in public by their fear of being defined as not r___. D____, m___-u___, d____ and ways of speaking and acting that are defined as i____ can gain a girl or woman a 'reputation'.

• Fear of s____ v____ or being labelled as “i____” pressures women to c____ to s____ e_____, discouraging deviant behaviour.

• For example, women on their own may avoid going into p___ - which are sites of c____ bb____ - for fear of being regarded as what?

• Similarly, L___ (1993) notes that in school, boys maintain control through s____ v____ a____, for example labelling girls as 's____' if they fail to conform to gender role expectations.

• Essentially, fear of social punishment keeps girls in line, so they commit less crime than boys, who face less verbal policing.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control → Control in public

• Women are controlled in public places by the threat or fear of male violence against them, especially sexual violence.

• For example, the Islington Crime Survey found that 54% of women avoided going out after dark for fear of being victims of crime, as against only 14% of men.

• Heidensohn notes that sensationalist media reporting of rapes adds to women's fear. Distorted media portrayals of the typical rapist as a stranger who carries out random attacks frightens women into staying indoors.

• Females are also controlled in public by their fear of being defined as not respectable. Dress, make-up, demeanour and ways of speaking and acting that are defined as inappropriate can gain a girl or woman a 'reputation'.

• Fear of sexual violence or being labelled as “immoral” pressures women to conform to social expectations, discouraging deviant behaviour.

• For example, women on their own may avoid going into pubs - which are sites of criminal behaviour - for fear of being regarded as sexually 'loose' or as sex workers.

• Similarly, Lees (1993) notes that in school, boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse, for example labelling girls as 'slags' if they fail to conform to gender role expectations.

• Essentially, fear of social punishment keeps girls in line, so they commit less crime than boys, who face less verbal policing.

Heidensohn: patriarchal control →Control at work

• Women's behaviour at work is controlled by m____ s_____ and m____.

• Sexual harassment is w____ and helps keep women 'i____ their p___'.

• Furthermore, women's s____ p____ reduces their opportunities to engage in major criminal activity at work.

• For example, the 'glass ceiling' prevents how? As a result, they are less likely to be involved in what crime?

Heidensohn: patriarchal control →Control at work

• Women's behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors and managers.

• Sexual harassment is widespread and helps keep women 'in their place'.

• Furthermore, women's subordinate position reduces their opportunities to engage in major criminal activity at work.

• For example, the 'glass ceiling' prevents many women from rising to senior positions where there is greater opportunity to commit fraud. As a result, they are less likely to be involved in white collar crime.

• In general, these patriarchal restrictions on women's lives mean they have f___ o____ for c____.

• However, H_____ recognises that patriarchy can also do what?

• For example, women are more likely to be p____ (for example, as a result of what?) and may turn to t___ or p____ to gain a decent standard of living.

• We explore this issue why some disadvantaged women become involved in crime - next. → Carlen: class and gender deals

• In general, these patriarchal restrictions on women's lives mean they have fewer opportunities for crime.

• However, Heidensohn recognises that patriarchy can also push some women into crime.

• For example, women are more likely to be poor (for example, as a result of gender inequalities in the labour market) and may turn to theft or prostitution to gain a decent standard of living.

• We explore this issue why some disadvantaged women become involved in crime - next. → Carlen: class and gender deals

Carlen: class and gender deals

• Using u____ tape-recorded interviews, C____ (1988) conducted a study of 39 15-46 year old w____-c____ women who had been c____ of a range of crimes including what?

• T____ were in p____ or y___ c____ at the time of the interviews.

• Although Carlen recognises that there are some m____-c____ female offenders, she argues that most c____ serious female criminals are working-class.

Carlen: class and gender deals

• Using unstructured tape-recorded interviews, Carlen (1988) conducted a study of 39 15-46 year old working-class women who had been convicted of a range of crimes including theft, fraud, handling stolen goods, burglary, drugs, prostitution, violence and arson.

• Twenty were in prison or youth custody at the time of the interviews.

• Although Carlen recognises that there are some middle-class female offenders, she argues that most convicted serious female criminals are working-class.

Carlen: class and gender deals

• Carlen uses a version of H____ (1969) c____ t____ to explain female crime.

• H___ argues that humans act r____ and are c____ by being offered a 'd____', of r____ in return for c____ to social norms.

• People weigh the benefits of what? against the benefits of what?

• If someone thinks c_____ won’t give them the p____ r____ and they think crime offers b_____ r____ than the risks (e.g., stealing seems easier and more r____ than working),. then they are more likely to commit c___

Carlen: class and gender deals

• Carlen uses a version of Hirschi's (1969) control theory to explain female crime.

• Hirschi argues that humans act rationally and are controlled by being offered a 'deal', of rewards in return for conforming to social norms.

• People weigh the benefits of obeying society’s rules (like a steady job) against the benefits of breaking the law (money, excitement, status).

• If someone thinks conforming won’t give them the promised rewards and they think crime offers bigger rewards than the risks (e.g., stealing seems easier and more rewarding than working),. then they are more likely to commit crime

Carlen: class and gender deals

Carlen argues that working-class women are generally led to conform through the promise of two types of rewards or 'deals' - what are these deals?

Carlen: class and gender deals

Carlen argues that working-class women are generally led to conform through the promise of two types of rewards or 'deals':

• The class deal: women who work will be offered material rewards, with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities.

• The gender deal: patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic gender role.

Carlen: class and gender deals

• If these rewards/deals are not available or not worth the effort, what happens ? C____ argues that this was the case with the w___ in her study:

In terms of the class deal, the women had failed to find what? and this left them feeling p_____o_____, o___ and the victims of injustice.

• 32 out of the 39 had always been in p____.

• Some found that qualifications gained in jail had been no help in what? Others had been on t____ c____ but still could not get a j___

• Many had experienced p____ and h_____ in trying to claim b____.

• As they had gained no rewards from the c___ d___, they felt they had nothing to l___by using c___ to escape from p___.

In terms of the gender for conforming to patriarchal family norms, most of the women had either not had the o____ to make the deal, or saw few r___ and many d___ in f___ l___.

• Some had been a____ p____ or s____ by their f___, or subjected to d____ v___ by partners.

• Over half had spent time in c____, which broke the bonds with f___ and f____

• Those leaving or running away from care often found themselves h____, u____ and p____.

Carlen: class and gender deals

• If these rewards/deals are not available or not worth the effort, crime becomes more likely.

Carlen argues that this was the case with the women in her study:

In terms of the class deal, the women had failed to find a legitimate way of earning a decent living and this left them feeling powerless, oppressed and the victims of injustice.

• 32 out of the 39 had always been in poverty.

• Some found that qualifications gained in jail had been no help in gaining work upon release. Others had been on training courses but still could not get a job.

• Many had experienced problems and humiliations in trying to claim benefits.

• As they had gained no rewards from the class deal, they felt they had nothing to lose by using crime to escape from poverty.

In terms of the gender deal for conforming to patriarchal family norms, most of the women had either not had the opportunity to make the deal, or saw few rewards and many disadvantages in family life.

• Some had been abused physically or sexually by their fathers, or subjected to domestic violence by partners.

• Over half had spent time in care, which broke the bonds with family and friends

• Those leaving or running away from care often found themselves homeless, unemployed and poor.

Carlen: class and gender deals

• Many of the women reached the conclusion that:

'crime was the only route to a d____ s_____ of l____. They had nothing to l____ and everything to g____

• Carlen concludes that, for these women, what were the two main causes of their criminality?

• D___ and a____ a___, and the d____ for e____, were c____ factors, but these often stemmed from p____ or being brought up in c____.

• Being c____ and jailed made the class deal even less a____ to them and made crime even more a____.

Carlen: class and gender deals

• Many of the women reached the conclusion that:

'crime was the only route to a decent standard of living. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain.'

• Carlen concludes that, for these women, poverty and being brought up in care or an oppressive family life were the two main causes of their criminality.

• Drug and alcohol addiction, and the desire for excitement, were contributory factors, but these often stemmed from poverty or being brought up in care.

• Being criminalised and jailed made the class deal even less available to them and made crime even more attractive.

Evaluation of Heidensohn- patriarchal control and Carlen - gender and class deals

✓- Heidensohn and Carlen's approaches to female crime are based on a combination of f____ and c____ t___:

• ✓- Heidensohn shows the many p____ c____ that help prevent women from d___

• ✓- Carlen shows how the failure of p____ s____ to deliver the promised 'deals' to some women removes the controls that prevent them from offending.

〤- However, both control theory and feminism can be accused of seeing women's behaviour as determined by e_____ f___ such as patriarchal controls or class and gender deals.

〤- Critics argue that this underplays the importance of f____ w____ and c___ in offending.

〤- Furthermore, Carlen's sample was s____ and may be u____, consisting as it did largely of w____-c_&&& and s____ o____.

Evaluation of Heidensohn- patriarchal control and Carlen - gender and class deals

✓- Heidensohn and Carlen's approaches to female crime are based on a combination of feminism and control theory: ✓

• ✓- Heidensohn shows the many patriarchal controls that help prevent women from deviating

• ✓- Carlen shows how the failure of patriarchal society to deliver the promised 'deals' to some women removes the controls that prevent them from offending.

〤- However, both control theory and feminism can be accused of seeing women's behaviour as determined by external forces such as patriarchal controls or class and gender deals.

〤- Critics argue that this underplays the importance of free will and choice in offending.

〤- Furthermore, Carlen's sample was small and may be unrepresentative, consisting as it did largely of working-class and serious offenders.

The liberation thesis

• If patriarchal society exercises control over women to prevent them from deviating, then it would seem logical to assume what?

• This is the liberation thesis' put forward by A____ (1975).

• A____ argues that, as women become l____ from patriarchy, their crimes will become as f____ and as s____ as men's. Women's liberation has led to what 2 things?

The liberation thesis

• If patriarchal society exercises control over women to prevent them from deviating, then it would seem logical to assume that, if society becomes less patriarchal and more equal, women's crime rates will become similar to men's.

• This is the liberation thesis' put forward by Adler (1975).

• Adler argues that, as women become liberated from patriarchy, their crimes will become as frequent and as serious as men's. Women's liberation has led to a new type of female criminal and a rise in the female crime rate.

The liberation thesis

• Adler argues that changes in the s____ of s____ have led to changes in women's o____ b___.

• As what? have lessened, and opportunities in e____ and w____ have become more e___, women have begun to adopt what?

• As a result, women no longer just commit t____ 'f____' crimes such as s_____ and p___. They now also commit typically 'm____ o____ such as crimes of v____ and w____-c____ crimes.

• This is because of women's greater s____-c_____ and a____, and the fact that they now have greater opportunities in the l____ structure.

• For example, there are more women in s____ p____ at work and this gives them the opportunity to commit serious w____-c____ crimes such as f____.

The liberation thesis

• Adler argues that changes in the structure of society have led to changes in women's offending behaviour.

• As patriarchal controls and discrimination have lessened, and opportunities in education and work have become more equal, women have begun to adopt traditionally 'male' roles in both legitimate activity (work) and illegitimate activity (crime).

• As a result, women no longer just commit traditional 'female' crimes such as shoplifting and prostitution. They now also commit typically 'male offences such as crimes of violence and white-collar crimes.

• This is because of women's greater self-confidence and assertiveness, and the fact that they now have greater opportunities in the legitimate structure.

• For example, there are more women in senior positions at work and this gives them the opportunity to commit serious white-collar crimes such as fraud.

The liberation thesis evaluation - ✓strengths

✓- Adler's thesis does draw our attention to the importance of investigating the relationship between what 2 things?

There is some evidence to support this the liberation thesis . For example:

• ✓- Both the overall rate of what what 2 things? during the second half of the 20th century. For example, between the 19___ and 19____, the female share of offences rose from one in ___ to one in ___.

• ✓-Adler argues that the pattern of female crime has s_____. She cites studies showing rising levels of female participation in crimes previously regarded as 'm____', such as e_____ and a____ r___.

• ✓-More recently, there has been media talk of the growth of 'g____ g__', a study by D_____ (2001) of M____ t____' self-images found that females were as likely as males to engage in r____-t____ behaviour and that girls were adopting more "m____' stances, such as the desire to be in c____ and look 'h____'.

The liberation thesis evaluation - ✓strengths

✓- Adler's thesis does draw our attention to the importance of investigating the relationship between changes in women's position and changes in patterns of female offending.

There is some evidence to support this the liberation thesis . For example:

• ✓- Both the overall rate of female offending and the female share of offences rose during the second half of the 20th century. For example, between the 1950s and 1990s, the female share of offences rose from one in 7 to one in 6.

• ✓-Adler argues that the pattern of female crime has shifted. She cites studies showing rising levels of female participation in crimes previously regarded as 'male', such as embezzlement and armed robbery.

• ✓-More recently, there has been media talk of the growth of 'girl gangs', a study by Denscombe (2001) of Midlands teenagers' self-images found that females were as likely as males to engage in risk-taking behaviour and that girls were adopting more "male' stances, such as the desire to be in control and look 'hard'.

The liberation thesis evaluation - ✘limitations

Critics reject Adler's thesis on several grounds:

✘- it can be argued that she overestimates what 2 things?

✘-The female crime rate began rising in the 19____ - long before the women's l____ m____, which emerged in the late 19___.

• Most female criminals are w____-c___ - the group least l____ to be i____ by women's liberation, which has benefited m____-c____ women much more.

• According to C____-L___ (1997), in the USA p___ and m___ women are more likely than l____ m____-c___ w___ to be criminals.

✘- Chesney-Lind did find evidence of what?
However, this is usually because of their link with p_____ - a very 'u____' f___ offence

✘There is little evidence that the i_____ o_____ s____ of professional crime has opened up to women.

• L____ and H____ (2001) found that female gang members in the USA were expected to conform to c____ g_____ r____ in the same way as n____-d____ girls.

The liberation thesis evaluation - ✘limitations

Critics reject Adler's thesis on several grounds:

✘- it can be argued that she overestimates both the extent to which women have become liberated and the extent to which they are now able to engage in serious violent crime.

✘-The female crime rate began rising in the 1950s - long before the women's liberation movement, which emerged in the late 1960s.

• Most female criminals are working-class - the group least likely to be influenced by women's liberation, which has benefited middle-class women much more.

• According to Chesney-Lind (1997), in the USA poor and marginalised women are more likely than liberated middle-class women to be criminals.

✘- Chesney-Lind did find evidence of women branching out into more typically male offences such as drugs.
However, this is usually because of their link with prostitution - a very 'unliberated' female offence

✘There is little evidence that the illegitimate opportunity structure of professional crime has opened up to women.

• Laidler and Hunt (2001) found that female gang members in the USA were expected to conform to conventional gender roles in the same way as non-deviant girls.

Females and violent crime

• One trend in the official statistics that seems to support Adler's liberation thesis is the increase in what?

• For example, according to H____ and D___ (2009), between 20___ and 20___, police statistics show the number of females arrested for violence rose by an average of ____% each year.

• Similar trends have been noted in other countries, including C____, A_____ and the U_____. If these police statistics are an accurate picture of offending, it suggests that females are increasingly committing typically 'm____ crimes, since v___ offending has traditionally been a m____ form of crime.

The criminalisation of females

• However, evidence from other sources paints a different picture.

• For example, in the USA, S____ and S____ (2009) found that while the female share of arrests for violence grew from ___ to ____ between 19___ and 20___, this rise in the police statistics was not matched by what

• That is, v____ did not report any increase in attacks by females.

• Similarly, s____-r____ studies showed no upward trend in females' violent criminality.

Females and violent crime

• One trend in the official statistics that seems to support Adler's liberation thesis is the increase in the female arrest and conviction statistics for violent crime.

• For example, according to Hand and Dodd (2009), between 2000 and 2008, police statistics show the number of females arrested for violence rose by an average of 17% each year.

• Similar trends have been noted in other countries, including Canada, Australia and the USA. If these police statistics are an accurate picture of offending, it suggests that females are increasingly committing typically 'male crimes, since violent offending has traditionally been a male form of crime.

The criminalisation of females

• However, evidence from other sources paints a different picture.

• For example, in the USA, Steffensmeier and Schwartz (2009) found that while the female share of arrests for violence grew from 1/5 to 1/3 between 1980 and 2003, this rise in the police statistics was not matched by the findings of victim surveys.

• That is, victims did not report any increase in attacks by females.

• Similarly, self-report studies showed no upward trend in females' violent criminality.

The criminalisation of females→ Net widening

• S_____ and S____ conclude that in reality there has been no change in what?

• They argue that the rise in arrests is due to the justice system 'widening the net' - what is this ?

• Similarly, C____-L____ (2006) argues that a policy of m____ arrests for d____ violence has led to a steep rise in the female violence statistics in the USA. Where a couple fight, b____ may be arrested, even though it is likely that the w____ is the v___.

• Females p____ i_____ by the justice system now find themselves being labelled as v____ offenders. ( the offenders are not just now i_____ out of t____ a____ but instead are being report more)

• In the UK, too, S_____ and G____ (2009) note that net-widening policies are producing a r___ in the official statistics for females' violent crimes. There is a growing trend towards prosecuting females for l____-l____ p____ a____, even in some cases for playground fights. Most convictions are for minor offences not involving weapons.

• This trend is an example of what Yfffff (2011) calls 'd____ d_____ up' to catch trivial offences in the net.

• W______ (2004) argues that in the past, girls' misbehaviour was more likely to be seen as a 'w___' issue, whereas now it has been r___-l____ as criminality.

The criminalisation of females→ Net widening

• Steffensmeier and Schwartz conclude that in reality there has been no change in women's involvement in violent crime.

• They argue that the rise in arrests is due to the justice system 'widening the net' - arresting and prosecuting females for less serious forms of violence than previously.

• Similarly, Chesney-Lind (2006) argues that a policy of mandatory arrests for domestic violence has led to a steep rise in the female violence statistics in the USA. Where a couple fight, both may be arrested, even though it is likely that the woman is the victim.

• Females previously ignored by the justice system now find themselves being labelled as violent offenders. ( the offenders are not just now increasing out of thin air but instead are being report more)

• In the UK, too, Sharpe and Gelsthorpe (2009) note that net-widening policies are producing a rise in the official statistics for females' violent crimes. There is a growing trend towards prosecuting females for low-level physical altercations, even in some cases for playground fights. Most convictions are for minor offences not involving weapons.

• This trend is an example of what Jock Young (2011) calls 'defining deviance up' to catch trivial offences in the net.

• Worrall (2004) argues that in the past, girls' misbehaviour was more likely to be seen as a 'welfare' issue, whereas now it has been re-labelled as criminality.

A moral panic about girls?

• If female participation in violent crime is not in fact increasing, how do we account for the increase in criminalisation of females for this kind of crime? - what is one view to this?

• For example, B____ and B____ (2009) point to media depictions of young women as 'd____ and d____, out of c____ and looking for f____'.

• Also, S____ (2009) found that p____ such as j____, p____ o____ and police were influenced by m___ s___ of violent 'l____' and many believed that girls behaviour was r___ getting worse.

• Similarly, in the USA, S_____ et al (2005) found that m____-d____ m____ panics about girls were affecting sentencing decisions.

• The overall effect is a s____-f____ pffff and an a____ s____: reports of girls' m___ sensitise police and courts, who take a t___ s____, resulting in more cc____, which produces further n____ m____ coverage and so on.

A moral panic about girls?

• If female participation in violent crime is not in fact increasing, how do we account for the increase in criminalisation of females for this kind of crime?

• One view is that it is a social construction resulting from a moral over young women's behaviour.

• For example, Burman and Batchelor (2009) point to media depictions of young women as 'drunk and disorderly, out of control and looking for fights'.

• Also, Sharpe (2009) found that professionals such as judges, probation officers and police were influenced by media stereotypes of violent 'ladettes' and many believed that girls behaviour was rapidly getting worse.

• Similarly, in the USA, Steffensmeier et al (2005) found that media-driven moral panics about girls were affecting sentencing decisions.

• The overall effect is a self-fulfilling prophecy and an amplification spiral: reports of girls' misbehaviour sensitise police and courts, who take a tougher stance, resulting in more convictions, which produces further negative media coverage and so on.

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Gender and victimisation

• Large-scale national victim surveys such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW 2012) show gender differences in the level and types of victimisation, and in the relationship between victims and offenders.

Homicide victims

• Female victims are more likely to know their killer and in 60% of these cases, this was a partner or ex-partner. Male victims are most likely to be killed by a friend or acquaintance.

Victims of violence

Fewer women than men are victims of violence overall. However:

• More women are victims of intimate violence (domestic abuse, sexual assault and stalking). One in four will experience domestic abuse during their adult life.

• Five times more women than men report having been sexually assaulted.

• Women are most likely to be victimised by an acquaintance, men by a stranger.

• Only 8% of females who had experienced serious sexual assault reported it. A third of those who didn't report it said they believed the police couldn't do much to help (CSEW 2012).

Mismatch between fear and risk

Research shows women have a greater fear of crime but the CSEW shows they are at less risk of victimisation. However, some local victim surveys such as by Lea and Young (1993) have found that women are in fact at greater risk than men. There is also some evidence from early studies (such as Sparks et al, 1977) that female victims of violence may be more likely to refuse to be interviewed.

Furthermore, victim surveys do not necessarily convey the frequency or severity of the victimisation.

For example, in the case of domestic abuse, Walby and Allen (2004) have shown that women were much more likely to be victims of multiple incidents.

Ansara and Hindin (2011) found that women victims experienced more severe violence and control.