interspecific interactions

Predation

Consuming all, or part of another

• carnivory is animals eating other animals

• Carnivorous plant species also consume animals

• Omnivores consume any and all types of food

The Remarkable Coevolution Of Predator And Prey Species In Communities

Predators Evolved Adaptations To -

•Attract Prey

•Avoid Detection By Prey

 

•Capture Prey

 

•Detect Prey And Target Weak Prey

 

•Digest Prey Tissues

 

•Inactivate Prey Toxins

 

•Kill Prey

Sensory systems

____ ____ of predators detect prey in creative ways

avoid

Predators evolved traits to ____ detection by prey

cooperative

Some species evolved ____ behaviors

• these behaviors which increase the probability of prey capture include tactics and teamwork

All of the above

All of the above

Killer Whales Form A Team To Make Sunfish More Edible

One Whale Holds The Captured Sunfish

 

•Another Whale Rams The Sunfish

 

•This Shatters The Sunfish

 

•The Soft Sunfish Tissues Are Released Into The Water

Interspecific cooperative hunting

Groupers And Moray Eels Interact Temporarily To Capture Prey

•Their Complementary Hunting Styles Enable The “Two-Trap Strategy

Interspecific Cooperative Hunting Among Dolphins And Marine Birds

Teamwork Among Predator Species Prevents The Bait Ball From Moving Laterally And Vertically

Reduce

Prey species have evolved many traits that ____ their risk of predation

●Attack Predators

 

●Avoid Detection

 

●Cooperative Behavioral Defenses

 

●Confuse, Injure, Kill, Poison, Or Stun Predators

 

●Detect Predators

 

●Elude Predators

camouflage

Prey species evolved ____ to reduce their risk of detection

• Masquerade, Also Called Misidentification, Is A Type Of Camouflage That Resembles An Abiotic Substance Or Inedible Substance

The Mimic Octopus, Thaumoctopus mimicus

●It Adjusts Its Color, Shape, And Skin Texture To Resemble Other Species In Its Community To -

•Attract Prey

•Deter Predators

Batesian mimicry

A Harmless Species Gains An Advantage By Resembling A Toxic Species In Its Community

 

●The Harmless Species Exploits The Chemical Defenses Of The Harmful Species To Reduce Its Risk Of Predation

Mullerian mimicry

A Toxic Species Gains An Advantage By Resembling Other Toxic Species In Its Community

•All The Mullerian Mimic Species Are Harmful

Chemical defense and coloration

• Bright colors advertise toxicity

• Warning coloration is also called aposematism

Some prey are able to reduce their risk of predation while sleeping

• Bottlenose Dolphins And Northern Fur Seals Sleep Unihemispherically

  •One Brain Hemisphere And One Eye Are Active
  

  ●Great Frigatebirds Sleep Unihemispherically On Rising Air Currents

  •“Sleeping On The Wing”
  

  ●Northern Elephant Seals Hold Their Breath And Sleep Bihemispherically At Deeper, Safer Depths
  

  ●Sperm Whales Sleep (10-15 Minutes) Unihemispherically In Groups And Hang Vertically Often At Shallow Depths

Behavior

The fear of predators influence prey ____

Prey Avoid Habitats That Facilitate Their Detection And Capture And that have Predators

Refuges

____ for prey help reduce predation

• flying

• Hiding on land or in water

• Inhabiting isolated habitats without natural enemies

• Sleeping on a cliffside or high in the forest canopy

Some prey species form high density populations to reduce their risk of predation

Predator Satiation Is Also Called Predator Swamping

 

● Cicada Reproductive Cycles Are 13 And 17-Years, Which Are Prime Numbers

 

•The Emergence Of Cicada Adults Produces 4,000,000 Individuals Per Hectare

Herbivory

Consuming part or all of a photosynthetic species

• herbivores consume algae, microalgae, phytoplankton, photosynthetic prokaryotes, and plants

Coevolution of herbivore species and plant species

●Herbivores Evolved Traits That Optimize Plant-Based Diets

•Access To Plants

•Avoidance And/Or Inactivation Of Plant Toxins

 

•Digestive Systems That Enable Plant Tissue Digestion

 

oCoevolved Mutualisms With Microbes That Digest Plant Tissues

oObtained Cellulase And Lignase Genes From Other Species

•Jaw Bones And Muscles For Chewing

•Teeth That Grind And Tear Plant Tissues

Digestive systems

Some herbivores evolved complex ____ ____

• They Also Evolved Mutualisms With Microbes That Digest Cellulose And Lignin

• The Complex Digestive Fermentation Chambers Facilitate Plant Tissue Digestions By The Mutualistic Microbes

Migration

____ enables some herbivores to follow seasonal plant foods

Herbivory

Flowering plants evolved biochemical traits that reduce the risk of ____

• Their Effective Immune Systems, Including Biochemical Defenses, Are -

   

  •Constitutive

   

  •Inducible

   

  ●They Form Tissues That Are -

   

  •Indigestible

   

  •Low In Calories

Herbivory

Flowering Plants Evolved A Variety Of Physical Traits That Reduce Their Risk Of ____

(Thorns, tough/hard flesh)

Trichomes

____ reduce the risk of Herbivory

• These Leaf Hairs Provide With Plant Organs With -

 

•Chemical Defenses

 

•Physical Defenses

Reduce

Some plants species evolved camouflage to ____ the risk of Herbivory

• Harvesting By Humans Selected For Camouflage In Fritillaria delavayi

Reduce

Some plant species Evolved mutualisms with animals to ____ the risk of Herbivory

• Acacia Trees (Vachellia species) And Ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea)

Sudden leaf movement

____ ____ ____ can startle herbivores

●Mimosa pudica Is The Sensitive Plant

 

•Leaves Fold Inward And Droop When Touched

 

oThis Dislodges Small Insects, Which Reduces Feeding

 

•Leaf Movement Is Due To Changes In Turgor Pressure Changes In Specialized Leaf Base Cells Called Pulvini

Mimicry

Some flowering plant species show Batesian ____

• The Seed Pod Of This Legume Species Resembles A Toxic Insect Species In Its Community

Mullerian mimicry

____ ____ occurs in some flowering plant species

• Boquilla Trifoliolata, The Chameleon Vine, Mimics The Color, Orientation, Size, Shape, And Spines Of The Toxic Tree It Climbs

Refuges

____ reduce the risk of Herbivory by herbivore avoidance

• Seeds Can Be Dispersed To Isolated Habitats Without Natural Enemies

Herbivore satiation

Some flowering plants show ____ ____

• Masting Or Mast Seeding Is Similar To Predator Satiation In Prey Species
  

  •Beech, Hickory, Oaks
  

  •Blueberries, Citrus, Raspberries