Stuff i dont know form all modules

Secondary organs/tissues

spleen, lymph nodes, appendix (vestigial), tonsils, Peyer’s patches (MALT), lymphatic vessels

Spleen

left side; filters blood; removes RBC’s, activates immune cells

Tonsils

palatine, pharyngeal, lingual

Basophil

Histamine and heparin, in blood, short-lived

Mast cell

Same job as basophils, in tissues, long-lived

Lymphatic vessels primary function and example:

Transport lymph between tissues and organs, carry immune cells

Examples: Lymphatic capillaries

When does Lymph form?

When Tissues pressure pushes intersitiual fluid into lymphatic capillary vessels

Lines of defense, which are innate and which are adaptive

First line: skin, mucus, cilia, tears, stomach acid (innate)

Second line: Phagocytes, NK cells, complement, inflamation, fever (innate)

Third line: Adapative immunity B and T cells (addaptive)

Lymphocytes

Large round nucleus; B cells, T cells, NK cells

Dendritic cell

Powerful antigen-presenting cell (APC

Granulocytes vs Agranulocytes

Gran: Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, mast cell

Agran:

Lymphocytes: B cell, T cell, NK cells

Monocyte: dendretic cell, macrophages

Complement proteins:

C3a: promotes inflammation

C3b: promotes opsonization(attaches to pathogens and help phagocytes recognize them)

C5a: Chemotaxis: strongly attacks immune cells

C5b: Initiates membrane attack complex formation

What are pyrogens?

cytokines or toxins that cause inflammation and fever

Describe Margination, diapedisis, and chemotaxis

Margination: CAM on blood vessels cells stick neutrophils near site of injury

Diapedisis: Neutrophils squeeze between endothelial cells and enter the injured tissue

Chemotaxis: signal is sent where the injury is at so neutrophils can come to exact location

What is T cell independent activation and can it lead to the production of IgM antibodies?

It is where B Cells can be activitated by “bumping into” an antigen, so yes it lead to production of igm but it cannot be used for memory cells

The light-chain variable portion of the antibody binds to specific antigens

The “sensory” portion

The constant heavy-chain portion of the antibody determines its class & its

functions

The “effector” portion

IgM appearance, function, important stuff

Pentamer, FIRST responder, Activates complement proteins MOST effectively.

IgA appearance, function, important stuff

Dimer, Exocrine secretions, prevents pathoges from attaching to epithelial membranes (neutrilization), passed to infant from mother during nursing

IgD appearance, function, important stuff

Monomer, surface of B cells, acts like receptor for B cells, Regulates humoral responses

IgG appearance, function, important stuff

Monomer, Most abundant and potent Ig in plasma, activates complement proteins and promotes phagocytes, 2nd kind of of ig immune response

IgE appearance, function, important stuff

Monomer, attach to basophils and mast cells , Triggers histamine release, associated w (allergies)

primary adaptive immune response occurs 

3 - 6 days, antibody levels peak 10 days after

the secondary response occurs much more quickly within

• few hours​

• Antibody levels peak within 2 - 3 days​

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disorder (SCID) “bubble boy disease”​

Patients have little to none T or B cells so no immune function, caused by mutations in critical survival genes, can be treated with bone marrow transplant or gene replacement therapy

Hodgkin’s Lymphoma​

• cancerous B cells​

• Result: no antibody synthesis​

• Cause not fully known, but EBV has been correlated to this disease

Multiple sclerosis

​​ myelin is targeted

Myasthenia gravis

neuromuscular junctions are targeted​

What happens when an organ is rejected

Cytotoxic T cells induce apoptosis of cells in new organ

Plasma cells create antibodies that bind to organ cells

Upper respiratory tract

Nose, sinuses, nasal cavity, pharynx

Lower respiratory tract

Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs

Conducting zone

Warms, humidifies, filters and conducts air; through terminal bronchioles BULK of airflow

Respiratory zone

Begins at respiratory bronchioles; alveolar gas exchange

Type I alveolar cells

Very thin simple squamous cells; gas exchange (simple squamous)

Type II alveolar cells

Produce surfactant ( simple cubodial)

four paranasal sinuses:

Frontal, Ethmoid, Maxillary & Sphenoid

Nasopharynx is located where?

Behind the nasal cavity (transports air)

Oropharynx is located where?

Behind the oral cavity (transports air and food)

What does the larynx do? How many cartilages

Larynx divides the contents of the pharynx, has 9 cartilages, cricoid cartialge is attatchment site for vocal cord

The trachea 3 tissue layers

Mucosa ( ciliated psedostatified columnar epithelium) goblet cells

Submucosa( middle layer, with dense connective tissue, hyaline cartlage c-rings

Adventitia( outermost layer, loose connective tissue, collagen, nerve endings)

the more branching

the less cartilage, the more smooth muscle

In expiation, what happens to diaphram and internal intercostals?

Diagphram gets shorter, intercostas get narrower

5 muscles of

inspiration:

1. Diaphragm

2. External intercostals

3. Sternocleidomastoid

4. Scalenes

5. Pectoralis minor

4 muscles of expiration:

1. Diaphragm

2. Internal intercostals

3. Abdominals

4. Quadratus lumborum

Inspiratory Capacity

The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration.

Functional Residual Capacity

The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration.

Vital Capacity

The maximum amount of air a person can exhale after a maximal inhalation.

Total Lung Capacity

The total volume of air in the lungs after a maximal inhalation (sum of all lung

volumes).

In pulmonary gas exchange, Where does O2 and CO2 go?

O2 goes into the blood, because the pressure is higher in the inspired air, CO2 goes into the air bc its higher pressure in blood

In systemic gas exchange, where does O2 and CO2 go?

O2 enters tissues bc its higher in the blood, CO2 enters blood bc it is higher pressure in tissues

If the ventilation rate is lower than

the perfusion rate

there is not enough

oxygen in the alveoli

If the ventilation rate is higher than the

perfusion rate

there is not enough blood

in the alveolar capillaries

Chronic Bronchitis

long-term exposure to irritants, the lining of the bronchial tubes becomes inflamed, more production of mucus, so more resistance so more air restriction,


Long lasting WET COUGH

Emphysema

the alveoli become weak & their walls break down decreasing the surface area while increasing compliance

More oxygen enters blood stream but CANNOT readily enter bloodstream

Shortness of breath, and BARREL CHEST

CO2 Transport Percentages

7% of body’s CO2 is dissolved in plasma

23% of boy’s CO2 is attactched to hemoglobin

70% of body’s CO2 is converted into Bicarbonate

Medullary (oblongata) respiratory center sets

respiratory rhythm

Ventral respiratory group (VRG) generates the signals for

forced inspiration & expiration. Drives respiration.

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) region of the medulla oblongata

stimulates the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to

induce inspiration. Modifies the VRG via feedback

Pontine (pons) respiratory center coordinates respiratory

muscles for

smooth muscle contraction

pneumotxic center

coordination of respiration between rate with

physical effort (inhibits the DRG) allowing relaxation after inspiration.

apneustic center

gasping reflex (activates the DRG) controlling the

depth of inspiration, particularly for deep breathing.

Adenocarcinoma

cancer of the bronchial

glands / alveolar cells (peripheral) - NON SMOKERS

Squamous cell carcinoma

cancer of the

bronchial epithelium (central) – smoking in 30% of

cases

Small cell carcinoma

cancer of the primary

bronchi – most aggressive/deadly / metastasizes before

symptoms. 98% are smokers

7 divisions of GI tract

Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus

4 tissues in the GI tract

Innermost Mucosa ( lines GI tract lumen beginning with epithelial cells & their lamina propria with a thin smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa (interna)​)

• The submucosa, contains connective tissue, and a nervous system submucosal plexus of nerves that controls the underlying muscularis mucosa (interna)​

• The muscularis externa, made of thicker circular and longitudinal smooth muscle & a myenteric plexus sandwiched between them​

• The outermost serosa (adventitia), covers the tract & organs of the abdominopelvic cavity carrying vessels & nerves while providing stabilization (part of the mesentery)​

• The outermost serosa (adventitia), covers the tract & organs of the abdominopelvic cavity carrying vessels & nerves while providing stabilization (part of the mesentery)​

enteric nervous system “Gut Brain”​

The submucosal plexus

regulates gastrointestinal secretions​

The myenteric plexus

regulates gastrointestinal motility

Stomachs 3 layers of muscalris externa:

Oblique, Circular, Longitudinal

Serosa(adventitia) - outermost connective tissue layer of GI tract

It extends to form peritoneum (ab cavity lining serosal membrane)

It extends to form mesenteries( membrane that anchors supplies blood to abdominopelvic organs)

Lesser omentum

Lesser curvature of the stomach, attatched also to liver

Greater omentum

Greater curvature of the stomach, attatched also to after draping of small intestines, folds to connect to the transverse colon

Mesentery proper

Jejunum an ileum, attatched also to posterior ab wall

Transverse mesocolon

Attatched to transverse colon, Posterior ab wall as well

Sigmoid mesocolon

Sigmoid colon, Posterior ab wall

crown

visible part of the tooth

Enamel, Dentin, Pulp chamber

Enamal covers the crown, hardest substance in the body

dentin- underneath the enamal, and makes up MOST of the tooth

Pulp chamber - underneath the dentin, it contains the blood vessels and nerves of the tooth

Neck, Root, and Cementum

NECK - contains a shallow pocket of gum tissue called the sulcus (if food left here it can cause periodontal disease)

Root - embeds tooth in jaw bones

Cementum - continuation of enamal, glue like

Incisor and canine function and mouth description

INC - Cutting and slicing food, chisel shaped

Canine - Puncturing and tearing food, slighly more pointythan incisors

Premolar and Molar function and description

Premolar - Tearing and grinding food, Bicuspul 1-2 roots

Molar - Crushing and grinding food, 4-5 cusps 2-3 roots

parotid glands

provides saliva to the mouth lateral to

the maxillary 2nd molars

• Makes ~25-30% of all saliva in the mouth (CN IX)

submandibular glands

underneath the lateral mandible

• Makes ~60-70% of all saliva (CN VII)

sublingual glands

underneath the anterior tongue

• Only makes ~3-5% of all saliva (CN VII)

Xerostomia

Dry mouth

Emesis

vomitting

• The large intestine has 3 regions:​

Cecum - with appendix

Colon - (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid)

rectum

what are ​​haustria and coli

haustria - small pouches that assist with mixing food

Tenia coli - smooth muscle lines that assist with colon motility and haustra shape

3 ways large intestine moves content

Haustral churning - squeezing of contents from one haustra to another

peristalisis - one contraction from start to finish

mass movement - strong, long contractions to inititate defaction

• Somatic motor neurons stimulate the external anal sphincter to relax, leading to defecation.​

VOLUNTARY