Argument (Chapter 2)

claim of fact

argues that something exists (or doesn't), is true (or isn't), or will happen (or won't)

claim of value

argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong, valuable or not valuable, desirable or undesirable

claim of policy

argues for a specific action or change, stating that something should or should not be done

induction

arranging an argument so that it leads from particulars to universals, using specific cases to draw a conclusion

deduction

arranging an argument from a general statement to a specific conclusion

classical argument

a five-part structure writers/speakers use to develop lines of reasoning (introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, conclusion)

Rogerian argument

based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively; focused on finding common ground and mutual understanding between opposing viewpoints

Toulmin model

a framework for constructing / analyzing arguments by breaking them down into six interconnected components (claim, evidence, warrant, backing, qualifier, reservation)

methods of development

modes of expression that help to make ideas clearer and more convincing; among the most useful are narration, cause and effect, comparison and contrast, definition, and description

narration

a method of development - the telling of a story or recounting of a series of real-life events

cause and effect

a method of development - an analysis of the causes that lead to a certain effect, or conversely, the effects that result from a cause

comparison and contrast

a method of development - the juxtaposition of two things to highlight their similarities or differences

definition

a method of development - an explanation of exactly what a word, phrase, or concept means

description

a method of development - closely allied with narration because both include many specific details; however, unlike narration, description evokes the senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels

personal experience

the use of an event or experience from your own life to support a point

personal observation

description of something you have seen or noticed in the world around you, based on firsthand witnessing rather than personal involvement

testimony

a description of how the writer or someone the writer is citing feels about a personal experience or personal observation

anecdote

a story about someone else that you have been told or found in your research

analogy

a comparison between two unrelated things, used as a way to clarify one of them

facts, examples, details (current events)

objective information or specific references that can be proven true

historical information

can provide background and context for current issues; often used as an example to develop a point of comparison or contrast to a more contemporary situation

expert opinion

the backbone of an evidence-based argument that draws on specialized, credible knowledge from someone considered an expert in their field

quantitative data

the use of numbers (statistics, surveys, polls, experiment results); may be presented through verbal explanations or, more often, illustrations such as graphs, charts, or tables