Art History 150

Abrahamic faiths

Negative events on earth will reach a climax of apocalypse. Most of the faithful believe these will center on the land of Israel, especially Jerusalem. Judaism, Christianity and Islam are the three Abrahamic faiths

The Dead Sea Scrolls

A collection of roughly 900-1,000 ancient Jewish (Essenes) manuscripts and over 25,000 fragments dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Many scholars believe they can trace what is in the dead sea scrolls to many themes in Christianity. Community saw the universe divided into a sharp moral battle between the sons of light and sons of darkness.

War Scroll

one of the original Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in Qumran Cave 1 in 1947. Writes about the sons of light destroying the sons of darkness. The scrolls wrote of the death of all sons of darkness and the rise of the sons of righteousness. Describes the fight between the two being a world ending event.

Aniconism

The practice of avoiding or prohibiting artistic representations of the natural and supernatural worlds, specific religious figures, or living beings. For the Jewish faith, there are not many images of the Jewish apocalypse

Book of Revelation

Last book of the New Testament. The word apocalypse comes from Revelation. The book writes about an apocalyptic prophecy to warn early believers about facing persecution

New Jerusalem

Belief that after the judgement, those who follow Gods word will reside in the New Jerusalem. The signs of New Jerusalem coming will be when Jerusalem is surrounded by armies and there is conflict in the middle east

Tympanum

Semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance door, or window, bounded by a arch. Appears in Gothic church architecture.

Last Judgment

Concept central to Abrahamic faiths in which god or a divine authority evaluates all human deeds at the end of time

Relic

physical object or body part of religious significance from the past, typically preserved for veneration as a tangible memorial of a saint, martyr, or sacred figure

Iconography

the study, identification, description, and interpretation of visual symbols, themes, and subject matter used in art and culture

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Four symbolic figures describes in the New Testament, in the Book of Revelations. . They appear as the Lamb of God breaks the first four of seven seals on a sacred scroll, unleashing cataclysmic judgments upon the earth. The first seal is a white horse carrying a bow, representing conquest. The second seal is a red horse with a sword representing war, the third seal is a black horse representing famine holding a scale, and the fourth seal is a pale emaciated horse representing death and holding a triton

Johannes Gutenberg

Created the movable type printing press in 1470 which led to an information revolution. allowed for printed information as well as printed calenders, allowing people to quantatatively perceive time

Grisaille

Art technique where an image is painted entirely in shades of gray, black or another neutral color to give a three-dimensional illusions. Albrecht Durer uses this technique in his depiction of the four horsemen and through his prints

7 Deadly Sins

seven deadly sins, in Roman Catholic theology, the seven vices that spur other sins and further immoral behavior.

Pride, or vainglory

Greed, or covetousness

Lust, or inordinate or illicit sexual desire

Envy

Gluttony, which is usually understood to include drunkenness

Wrath, or anger

Sloth, or acedia

Can be found in Bosch’s depiction of hell in the Garden of Earthly Delights

Ottoman Turks

nomadic turkic people from central asia. Ottoman Turks encroachment into Europe and capture of Constantinople in 1453 led to apocalyptic fervor as year 1500 approached.

Qur’an

Qur’an is the central religious text of islam and is believed to be the absolute work of god as it was revealed to the prophet Muhummad, and there is no translation. There is a simple belief that you must profess to be Muslim which is “there is no god but god”. The Qur’an also had no narrative order

Falnama (book of omens)

collection of illustrated manuscripts used for divinations. People would ask a question and turn to an image, and read it for clues. It was popular in Shi’i Safavid court and has a few images of apocalyptic events. It would be considered unorthodox to many Sunni Muslims as it had depictions of god.

Haram al-Sharif

Dome of the Rock, located in Jerusalem. People come to pray at the walls of the temple and today, most Muslims believe that the Dome of the Rock is the place the prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven. The temple is circular with two rows where one can go in the and circle around the rock. The interior has been preserved from the 7th century. The dome is golden and the walls have mosaics on it. The mosaics at the temple have no human images (Islamic aniconism) and inscription at the dome of the rock describes Muhammad being the messenger of god and that God is the only god.

Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem

Constructed in 4th century and marked as the site of Christ’s crucifixion, burial and resurrection.

Gog and Magog

Devilish figures that are said to rise and be a sign of the Last day. Represent enemies of god and the destructive attack at the end of time.

People of the Book

Followers of monotheistic faiths who received divine scriptures from God prior to the arrival of the Qu’ran. Beleive God is only one God and cannot have a son

Dante Aleghieri

Famous for writing the Divine Comedy, an epic poem depicting a spiritual journey through the three realms of Christian afterlife - Hell, Purgatory and Heaven.

Purgatory

A place of condition or temporal punishment for those departing this life in God’s grace but are not free from faults. Dante imagines Purgatory as being divided into seven terraces each with a corresponding vice. The souls in the purgatory are in the process of moral change, and suffer in order to become good.

Pietro Aretino

Italian Author remembered for his exchange of letters regarding Michelangelo’s last Judgement. Aretino, in his letters, described how Michelangelo should paint the scene and was a friend of his prior to the creation of the Last Judgment. After the painting was finished, Aretino was unhappy at the nude forms and said that they should not be found at the highest chapel in the world. Points to the tensions between Christianity and Renaissance Art.

Giorgio Vasari

Italian Renaissance painter, Known for Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects. Exchanged letters with Michelangelo after the completion of the Last Judgment.

Indulgences

Indulgence is a sacramental remission of temporal punishment through confession, communion in life or through purgatory in death.

Paul III

Paul III Commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Last Judgment at the Sistine Chapel.

The Buddha (Siddhartha)

The Buddha ca 560 BCE born into a royal family and named Siddhartha at birth. Left the palace to seek a life of asceticism until he decided to choose a middle path - neither luxury or asceticism. Through yogic mediation, Siddhartha achieved enlightenment - became known as The Buddha

Ashoka “The Great”(r. 272-231 BCE)

Ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent - uniting diverse realms under the umbrella of Buddhism. Was a patron to Stupas and set the standard for Buddhist leaders. Governed in accordance with Buddhist ideals

Torana

Sacred, free-standing ceremonial gateway marking the entrance to a Buddhist stupa or Hindu temple. Typically consists of two pillars carrying two or three transverse beams. The toranas at the Great Stupa symbolize spiritual transition from the secular world to sacred space. At the Great Stupa, the toranas have elaborate carvings with aniconic depictions of the Buddha

Circumambulation

Walk around the stupa to be in the presence of the Buddha and get good merit.

Nirvana

Ultimate aspiration of Buddhism is to achieve Nirvana - release from earthly existence and the cycle of birth and rebirth

Karma

Karma is the action that leads to future consequences. Following the right path allows for good Karma (spiritual merit), which leads to a better rebirth. Artistic patronage is a way to earn good Karma

Jataka

The Jataka tales is a collection of works in Buddhist literature that recounts the previous incarnations of the Buddha. Story of the Buddha’s past lives

Samsara

The cycle of birth death and rebirth that serves the Buddhist framework for understanding the nature of suffering and how to escape it. For Mahayana Buddhism, the goal is to become enlightened and become bodhisattva and stay in the cycle of samsara to help others, focus on compassion, and expand to Patheon

Maitreya Buddha

The prophesized fifth and final Buddha. Currently, Bodhisattva Maitreya is residing in Tusita Heaven and in the distant future, Maitreya will descend from Tusita Heaven and be reborn onto earth. He will become enlightened and become the Buddha and teach people the pure Dharma

Wu Zetian

Empress Wu Zetian was the Queen to emperor Gaozong, in 690, the Monk Faming decalred that the Empress was descended from Maitreya. Later Wu declared herself emperor. Then, she ordered construction of the Great Cloud Temples and constructed statues to legitimize herself as the Maitreya Buddha

Linga

Abstract or aniconic symbol of the Hindu god Shiva, representing his infinite, formless cosmic energy. Symbol of phallic energy as a generative force of the world. Can be found throughout Hinduism and in the Caves of Elephanta

Shiva Nataraja

The god of Dance, Destruction and Renewal. Shiva represents apocalypse and creation and he dances away the illusory world of maya transforming it into power. and enlightenment. Seen as a part of the cycle and balance of the universe.

Puja

Offerings such as food, flowers, and spices given to the gods. Occurs in Temples because of the belief that there is a living presence of gods and goddesses within the temple.

Mandala

A sacred geometric diagram in Buddhism that metaphysically represents the cosmos and celestial palace and map to guide the mind toward enlightenment. The destruction of the sand mandala is a sacred ritual teaching of impermanence of all things and cultivating non-attachment

Darshan

The religious sight of the Deity. Darshan is a proxy of interacting directly with a god.

The Last Judgment Portal from Chartres Cathedral, France, building of cathedral 1134-1260

The royal portal situated on the entrance of Chartres Cathedral. The work is a low-relief stone cut. Along the outside of the Tympanum are jamb figures sculpted into the columns, representing the Old Testament kings and queens and operating as a summary of all Christian teachings/knowledge. On the right portal is the Birth of Christ; the left portal is beyond the time of Christ and the Central portal is the end of days and is the largest and most central portal. Christ is surrounded by a mandorla and the four evangelists; below him are the 12 apostles. anyone who enters Chartres is reminded of the last judgement. The Royal Portal is a different style than the south porch (Constructed after the fire) Which is a high relief work with deeper carving and more vibrant depiction of drapery. The south porch displays a high gothic, high relief depiction. In the Early gothic work it is more symbolic, whereas, the High gothic is narrative

The Last Judgment Portal from Saint Lazarus Cathedral, Autun, France, 1132-1146 

The Saint Lazarus Cathedral housed relics of St. Lazarus, whom christ raised from the dead. It is a Tympanum that depicts Christ at the end of days judging the righteous and the damned. The angels are found weighing souls and demons dragging souls to hell. There are serene faces on the heavenly side and anguish on the demon side. Chaos on the demon side with jagged angularity and order on the heavenly side. Is on the outside of the Cathedral and serves as a warning to visitors/scare people to the right path. Artistically, the work is a Romanesque stone sculpture carved into the cathedral. The bodies are elongated making the scene feel streched. It is a low relief, shallow stone cut.

The Last Judgment Portal from the Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, France, 1163-1345 (portal from 1220-1230)

High gothic, High relief depiction of the Last Judgement. Carved at the entrance of Notre Dame (so all visitors can see it). It features christ at the center, and he is the only figure looking outward at visitors reminding them that they will one day be judged. The deamons are to the viewers right and heaven is to viewers left. On the heaven side, the faces are serene and there is order wheread, on the hell side the faces are in anguish, the demons are grotesque and snickering and there is more chaos. Many saw the fire at notre dame as a sign as the apocalypse

Albrecht Dürer, Apocalypse in Pictures, 1498 (series of 15 woodcuts) (Germany)

The Four Horseman of the Apocalypse

Martyrdom of St. John

Opening of Fifth and Sixth Seals

Opening of Seventh Seal

The Beast with Lamb’s Horns and Beast with Seven Heads

Albrecht Durer is most famous for painting images of the apocalypse. He most commonly used print using woodcuts and engravings which allowed for pieces to be spread and have an intimate viewing as well as have crispness of detail of form.

The Four Horsemen: In the image we see the four horsemen each with a unique depiction charging forward. The form of the men and the horses creates a feeling of forward movement/momentum leaving an air of urgency within the scene. The image is taller than it is wide with the foreground having humans who are being trampled, the middle ground containing the horsemen, and the background having an angel. There are many horizontal lines in the image which adds to the feeling of movement despite it being a still image. The horses are presented in a diagonal position which also adds a sense of movement. The horsemen are positioned upright while the people being trampled are laying down.

Martyrdom of St. John: Dramatic woodcut depicting the brutal execution of St. John. After st. Hohn renounced the Christian faith he was sentenced to death by having boiling oil poured on to him. The piece has detailed line work due to the woodcut print. In the work, the stone wall cuts the scene, separating the execution from the spectators. Dürer also represents the guards in Ottoman attire

Opening of Fifth and Sixth Seals: Split between heaven and hell as well as day and night with the fifth seal residing in the upper half of the piece with martyrs of Roman persecution and angels descended above. and the sixth seal in the lower half as stars rain down from the heavens. Here there is the emperor, a pope and common people. . Additionally, split vertically with the sun and the mood as central figures. Narratively, it depicts the breaking of the fifth and sicth seals where martyrs are vindicated and the breaking of the sixth seal where cosmic disturbance is unleashed, the sun turned black the mood blood red, stars falling, and mountain and islands moved.

Opening of Seventh Seal: Narratively it depicts the breaking of the seventh seal where a series of dramatic events occur on earth and in heaven. The woodcut shows chaos on earth with fire on land, stormy seas, and shifting of earth. It also has angels playing trumpets, and a golden alter of prayer. Figures crowd the page to show the drama and chaos as the end nears.

The Beast with Lamb’s Horns and Beast with Seven Heads: Woodcut showing the emergence of a seven headed beast from the sea. As well as a lion. God is at the upper center of the page and surrounded by angels. vertical composition with parallel, cross-hatched lines

Hieronymous Bosch, Last Judgment, 1492 (Netherlands)

Created at the end of the 15th century with increasing anxiety surrounding the end of the world. It is a tryptic or 3-part paining from current day belgium. It is painted on wood panels in oil paint and gives a vivid depiction of color and depth.. On the right we see multiple moments in the Garden of Eden, foreshadowing what is to come with fallen angels surrounding Christ. The middle panel shows the last judgment, and on the the left we see visions of Hell. in hell, people are being punished according to the crime (represented by the 7 deadly sins). The painting is nightmarish to scare viewers. The light also disappears from the left to right panels. The middle panel becomes darker and in hell it is nearly black.

Hieronymous Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, ca. 1490-1500 (Netherlands)

Tryptych depicting the Garden of Eden on the left, which is a dreamlike landscape with hidden faces and hybrid animals. the Garden of earthly delights in the center where people engage in bad desires and delights. and hell to the right, with the landscape being dark, evil and unsettling. This is Bosch’s vision of sin. It is a surrealist depiction (while surrealism was not yet an art form) and it was meant to scare people.

The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (Palestine/Israel), Umayyad Dynasty, patronized by, ‘Abd al-Malik, 691.

Sacred temple in Jerusalem which is believed to be the place the prophet Muhummad ascended to Heaven. It has a golden dome making it very visible from the city skyline, and has mosaics on the outside. The mosaics at the dome of the rock reflect a tie to the world of late antiquity and contain no human figures or animals. The inscription at the dome of the rock comes from the Qur’an stating that there is no god but God.

Falnama of Shah Tahmasp, Safavid Iran, 1550s

“Day of Judgment”

“Dhu’l Qarnayn Builds Wall Against Gog and Magog”

“Adam and Eve” 

Day of Judgement: In the Falnama, a divination book, the Day of Judgement image is a hand-painted depiction of the day of judgement, and the two central figures (Muhammad and Ali) are veiled. The Day of Judgement in the Book of Omens has far less anatomical detail than Michelangelo's depiction of the Last Judgement. Additionally, the human figures in the work are placed in a very ordered manner. We see one angel with a trumpet to herald the end of the world and another with a scale, weighing a person’s good deeds against their bad.

“Dhu’l Qarnayn Builds Wall Against Gog and Magog” This painting depicts the construction of the apocalyptic wall, overseen by a prophet figure. The work shows both human and non-human figures working together, assembling bricks to forge a barrier to imprison God and Magog, two hostile, and corrupt forces in islamic belief. The work had ink, pigments and gold on paper. The work uses blues as well as firey reds and bright yellows for the figures, which contrasts from the grays of the background and wall being built. The figures are not anatomically realistic, and rather have a 2-d flattened look to them.

“Adam and Eve” This work depicts adam riding a dragon like figure and Eve riding a peacock in Eden. angels on the upper and lower parts of the painting surround them. the work depicts the muslim story of Iblis enticing the peacock, the gatekeeper of paradise, to allow the serpent to enter eden. Iblis entered the garden, seated between the serpents teeth, to then seduce eve into eating the fruit. In the painting, the angel onlookers seem to be discussing and thoughtful movements to show their concern of the trial that will soon occur in eden. The painting features vibrant colors with the garmets, creatres, and angel wings all being a spectable of color.

Michelangelo. Last Judgment. Sistine Chapel (named after Sixtus IV), Rome (Vatican), 1534-41.

In michelangelo’s last judgemet, he depicts the scene of the last judgement from christian faith, showing Christ at the end of times. The painting resides on the wall of the sistine chapel menaing you have to be physically present to see it and it is a more elite space to be in. To the top of the painting is heaven and in the bottom right corner is hell. In Michelangelo’s depiction, he draws on tradition from dantes inferno with the damned being boated to hell. It is a linear depiction of life, compared to that of Buddhist tradition. Additionaly, Michelangelo takes a Greco-Roman depiction of the characters in the painting with Christ looking Apollo-like. Even the women in the painting have a male-like physique. And, the anatomy is hyper realistic with great detail to the muscle. In this painting, the figures are also nude, which led to great tension between Michelangelo and the church. the figures in the painting are more sporadically placed, rather than having a structured alignment. The spirits and gods also have weight in Michelangelo’s painting showing that even the divine realm has earthly components.

The Great Stupa of Sanchi, India, first built in the 3^rd century BCE, toranas were added in 1^st century BCE 

Torana Scenes: 

The Great Departure 

Temptation of the Buddha by Mara and His Armies 

Jataka scene: Buddha as monkey king

The Great Departure: Shows the Buddha leaving the palace life. The Buddha in this work is depicted without image (aniconism) and is instead represented with a parasol. In the work, multiple moments in time are depicted showing Siddharthas journey to enlightenment. The work is a relief work.

Temptation of the Buddha by Mara and His Armies: Another aniconic depiction of the Buddha. In this narrative it shows Mara sending his daughters to distract Siddhartha from his meditation. The seduction fails and Mara then sends armies to breat the Buddha’s meditationn. But despite this the Buddha remains undisturbed. The buddha is represented by the Bodhi tree

Jataka Scene: Buddha as Monkey King: Illustrated one of the Buddha’s past lives as the noble monkey king, where he acts as a living bridge for his monkey followers and sacrifices himself to save his troop. uses a continuous story of multiple events within a single relief work.

Dipankara Jataka, ca. 2nd century, Pakistan (ancient region of Gandhara, Swat Valley), Metropolitan Museum of Art

Stone relief depicting the Dipankara Buddha and Megha Buddha, the previous life of Sakamuni. The Megha appears three times, once kneeling letting Dipankara step on his hair, once standing to the left of Dipankara offering flowers, and for a third time floating in the upper left corner paying respect. The narrative spans over time and shows the different conceptions of time in Buddhism. It has details of drapery in the relief as well as gold leaf embellishments. This piece was located outside a Stupa for a public viewing experience.

Yamantaka, Destroyer of the God of Death, Tibet, 18th century

This work is on cloth which means it was mobile and used in meditation. It depicts a multi-armed manifestation of the Bodhisattva\. the Bodhisattva has blue skin, a buffalo head, and is banashing Yama, the god of death and samara. The work has vibrant colors and fire surrounding Tamantaka, the destroyer of the god of death. While the central figure looks somewhat terrifying, he is there to conquer the cycle of suffering.

Wheel of Life, Tibet, 19th century

• Buddhist faith

• Cyclical nature of time

• God devouring the earth's cycle but in the wheel itself it is cyclical

• Depicting the circle of life with the seven realms and rebirth

• On a tapestry (Mobile) folded and hung up for meditation

At the center is three poisons (Pig = ignorance; snake = anger; rooster = desire) and thse animate samsara. The first ring has virtuous and non virtuous actions (karma) and the second ring has the six realms where one can be reborn. The outer ring shows the conciousness being reborn.

Chenrezig Sand Mandala, created and exhibited at British House of Commons in 2008, during Dalai Lama’s Visit

The mandala is a sacred tibetan buddhist tradition involving a meticulous creation of the mandala with sand. the product has intricate geometric diagrams and millions of grains of colorful sand. However once it is finished, the work is then intentionally destroyed sweeping all the colorful sands together creating a homogenous grey. It is then returned to a river to enter the cycle again. The practice represents the impermanence of earthly materialism and highlights the cyclical nature of all life.

Shiva Nataraja, Chola Period, bronze, 11th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art

• Shiva Nataraja, Chola period, ca. 11th century

• Each limb out spread somewhere else and only one leg is ground to the earth.

• Four arms in different directions

• Holding drum that can be beaten while he dances

• Ring of fire surrounding him

• Act of destruction by dance

  • But, not a notion of evil, rather the dance of destruction is a part of the cycle and is necessary for the world to be recreated and reborn

• The display of limbs, ring of fire, and hair show how vigorous the dance is

Siva statues are believed to have a living presence of the god in the statue and therefore interacting with the work is a proxy for interacting directly with god

Elephanta Caves, India

Trimurti sculpture

Androgynous Shiva, ca 550-750

Trimurti sculpture: 20 foot high rock cut sculpture representing the supreme cosmic forms of lord shiva. It has three faces in one statue with the side as Brama, the God of creation, the middle as Vishnu the god of protection and the other side as Shiva the god of destruction. All being on the same statue represents how all three are a part of the same cycle. The statue is within the Elephanta caves, meaning you must be physically present to observe it.

Androgynous Shiva, ca 550-750: Monumental rock cut sculpture potraying Shiva as a half male half female split verically down the middle. The figure is in a three bend pose with the hip, torso and neck bent. The hip as and left breast are exaggerated feminine features and the other having a more muscular chest and a headpiece adorned with a cresent moon . The figure is also leaning on a bull mount. The half feminine side of the relief is based on the complex theme of masculine and feminine energies of the universe