Research Methodology, Biostatistics, and Qualitative Methods

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering research design, quantitative and qualitative paradigms, sampling strategies, biostatistics, survey design, and mixed methods based on the lecture notes.

Research Question

Identifies what the study seeks to answer.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction.

Thesis Statement

Expresses the central argument or focus of the research.

Research Aims

Describe the specific objectives or steps used to answer the research question, utilizing clear, measurable action verbs.

Research Idea Log

An organizational tool that logs potential topics, questions, objectives, and relevant literature while helping researchers consider the potential impact and importance of their work.

Quantitative Research

A research approach that uses numerical data to describe, compare, or test relationships, emphasizing internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity.

Qualitative Research

A research approach that explores experiences, perspectives, meanings, and how or why phenomena occur, emphasizing credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Descriptive Research

A major type of quantitative research that summarizes characteristics of a sample or population.

Correlational Research

A type of quantitative research that examines relationships between variables.

Causal-Comparative / Quasi-Experimental Research

A quantitative research approach that investigates differences between groups without full experimental control.

Experimental Research

A quantitative approach that tests interventions under controlled conditions.

Narrative Research

A qualitative research approach that explores stories.

Phenomenology

A qualitative research approach that examines lived experiences.

Grounded Theory

A qualitative research approach that develops explanations of processes or social processes.

Case Study

A qualitative approach that investigates particular cases in depth.

Population

Includes everyone meeting the study criteria.

Sample

The subgroup of a population that is studied.

Parameter

A numerical value that describes a population.

Statistic

A numerical value that describes a sample.

Probability Sampling

A sampling method that uses random selection and generally supports stronger population-level generalization.

Non-Probability Sampling

A sampling method that uses nonrandom selection; it limits generalizability but is often useful in qualitative research.

Simple Random Sampling

A probability sampling method that randomly selects individuals from the population.

Stratified Sampling

A probability sampling method that randomly selects individuals within defined subgroups.

Cluster Sampling

A probability sampling method that randomly selects entire groups or clusters.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique that recruits easily accessible participants.

Purposive Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique that deliberately selects participants who can provide relevant information.

Data Cleaning

The process of preparing information for analysis by checking errors, missing responses, inconsistent coding, and variable formats without inventing or improperly changing responses.

Reverse Scoring

Changing the numerical direction of a survey item so that all items consistently measure the same construct.

Dummy Coding

Converting categorical responses into numerical indicators, commonly using $0$ and $1$, so they can be incorporated into statistical analyses.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize the observed data using measures, tables, and graphs.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics that use sample data to estimate population characteristics or test hypotheses.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a dataset.

Median

The middle value when data are ordered.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

Range

A measure of variability that calculates the difference between minimum and maximum values.

Quartiles

Values that divide ordered data into four sections.

Variance and Standard Deviation

Measures of variability that describe how spread out values are around the mean.

Prospective Research

A study design that follows participants forward in time to observe outcomes.

Retrospective Research

A study design that examines existing information or past events.

Case-Control Study

A study design that compares people with and without an outcome.

Cohort Study

A study design that follows groups based on exposures or characteristics.

Randomized Clinical Trial (RCT)

A study design that randomly assigns participants to interventions.

Study Endpoint

A specific outcome being measured in a study, such as disease occurrence or treatment response.

Confidence Interval (CI)

A range of plausible values for a population parameter; a $95\%$ CI is calculated using a method that would capture the true parameter in approximately $95\%$ of repeated samples.

Null Hypothesis ($H_0$)

A hypothesis that generally states that no difference or association exists.

Alternative Hypothesis ($H_a$)

A hypothesis that proposes that a difference or association exists.

p-value

A measure of how unusual the observed results would be if the null hypothesis were true; a value below $0.05$ is conventionally considered statistically significant when $\alpha = 0.05$.

Type I Error

A false positive error occurring when a true null hypothesis is rejected.

Type II Error

A false negative error occurring when a study fails to reject a false null hypothesis.

Statistical Power

The probability of detecting a real effect.

One-Sided Hypothesis Test

A hypothesis test that evaluates an effect in a specified direction.

Two-Sided Hypothesis Test

A hypothesis test that evaluates whether a difference exists in either direction.

Independent t-test

A parametric statistical test used to compare the means of continuous variables between two independent groups.

Paired t-test

A parametric statistical test used to compare two related continuous measurements.

ANOVA

A parametric statistical test used to compare continuous variable means across multiple groups.

Nonparametric Tests

Statistical tests that rely on fewer distributional assumptions and often analyze ranks (e.g., Wilcoxon rank-sum, Wilcoxon signed-rank, Kruskal-Wallis).

Chi-Square Test

A statistical test used to evaluate associations between categorical variables.

Fisher's Exact Test

A statistical test used to compare categorical variables when sample sizes or expected cell counts are small.

Relative Risk (RR)

A metric that compares the probability of an event between groups, where a value of $1$ indicates no difference.

Odds Ratio (OR)

A metric that compares the odds of an event between groups, where a value of $1$ indicates no difference.

Absolute Risk Reduction (ARR)

The arithmetic difference in event rates between control and treatment groups.

Relative Risk Reduction (RRR)

The reduction in event rate expressed as a proportion of the control group's event rate.

Sensitivity

The proportion of people with a disease who test positive.

Specificity

The proportion of people without a disease who test negative.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV)

The probability of having a disease after receiving a positive test result, which depends on disease prevalence.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV)

The probability of not having a disease after receiving a negative test result, which depends on disease prevalence.

Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curve

A graph plotting sensitivity against the false-positive rate ($1 - \text{specificity}$) across different thresholds to evaluate test discrimination.

Kaplan-Meier Curve

A statistical plot that estimates the probability of remaining event-free over time.

Cumulative Incidence Curve

A statistical plot that estimates the probability of experiencing an event over time and can account for competing events.

Multivariable Analysis

An analysis that evaluates the relationship between an outcome and multiple predictors simultaneously to adjust for potential confounding variables.

Linear Regression

A regression model used to analyze continuous outcomes.

Logistic Regression

A regression model used to analyze binary outcomes that reports odds ratios.

Cox Proportional Hazards Regression

A regression model used to analyze time-to-event outcomes that reports hazard ratios.

Mixed Methods Research

A research methodology that integrates quantitative and qualitative evidence.

Multi-Method Research

Research that uses multiple methods without necessarily integrating the findings.

Multimodal Research

Research that uses different forms of data, such as photographs, interviews, or recordings.

Explanatory Sequential Design

A mixed methods design that begins with quantitative data collection followed by qualitative research to explain the results.

Exploratory Sequential Design

A mixed methods design that begins with qualitative research followed by quantitative research.

Convergent Design

A mixed methods design that collects both quantitative and qualitative data and brings the findings together.

Positionality

How researchers' identities, experiences, values, and backgrounds influence their perspectives.

Reflexivity

The ongoing process of recognizing and critically examining researchers' influences throughout the research.

Methodological Congruence

A state in which the research question, methodology, study design, methods, and interpretation fit together logically and support the study's purpose.

Questionnaire

The specific instrument containing questions used in survey research.

Double-Barreled Question

A flawed survey question that asks about two things at once, making responses difficult to interpret.

Nominal Scale

A measurement scale consisting of unordered categories (such as blood type).

Ordinal Scale

A measurement scale consisting of ordered categories without equal measurable spacing (such as satisfaction ratings).

Interval Scale

A measurement scale that features equal units between values.

Likert Scale

A scale measuring attitudes or opinions using ordered responses, such as strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Research Paradigm

The philosophical perspective guiding the research.

Methodology

The overall approach to inquiry in a research study.

Post-Positivism

A philosophical paradigm assuming that a reality exists but human understanding of it is imperfect.

Constructivism / Interpretivism

A philosophical paradigm emphasizing how meaning is shaped by experiences and context.

Critical Approaches

Philosophical paradigms that examine how power, identity, and social structures shape knowledge.

Inductive Content Analysis

A qualitative approach that identifies practical categories, such as barriers and supports.

Reflexive Thematic Analysis

A qualitative research approach that identifies patterns of meaning across data.

Coding

The qualitative process of identifying and labeling meaningful pieces of data.

Theme Development

The qualitative process of identifying broader patterns of meaning across coded data.

Constant Comparison

A qualitative analytical method involving repeatedly comparing pieces of data to identify similarities, differences, and developing patterns.

Analytic Memos

Documents that record researchers' reflections, interpretations, and decisions during data analysis.