Biology, Anatomy and Physiology: Module 1 Review

key vocabulary

Biology

The study of all living things, including their structure, function, growth, and interrelationships.

Anatomy

The study of physical structures within an organism.

Physiology

The study of how the physical structures function.

Genetic Variation

Important for the survival of populations of organisms to ensure that some will survive any major environmental change.

Six Kingdoms of Life

Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals, categorized by characteristics like cell structure, environment, movement, and energy acquisition.

Prokaryotic Organisms

Organisms with a very simple cell structure, no membrane-bound organelles (like a nucleus, mitochondria, or endoplasmic reticulum), and DNA located in the cytoplasm.

Eukaryotic Organisms

Organisms that have a complex cell structure and contain membrane-bound organelles.

Archaebacteria

Single-celled, prokaryotic, primitive organisms found in extreme environments (e.g., boiling, freezing, salty, acid).

Eubacteria

Single-celled, prokaryotic organisms found almost everywhere on Earth, most are harmless or helpful, but some can cause human diseases.

Protists

Single-celled, eukaryotic organisms with various species having characteristics similar to fungus, plants, or animals, and may have structures like flagella or cilia.

Fungi

Mostly multicellular (except for yeast), eukaryotic, non-photosynthetic organisms; examples include mushrooms, mold, and mildew.

Plants

Multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms that can live on land or in water.

Animals

Multicellular, eukaryotic, non-photosynthetic organisms that can live on land or in water and have locomotion.

Cephalic

Anatomical term referring to the head.

Cervical

Anatomical term referring to the neck.

Thoracic

Anatomical term referring to the chest/breastbone region.

Abdomen

Anatomical term referring to the abdominal region.

Pelvis

Anatomical term referring to the pelvic region.

Brachial

Anatomical term referring to the arm.

Femoral

Anatomical term referring to the thigh.

Pedal

Anatomical term referring to the foot.

Superior

Directional term meaning above, over, or toward the head.

Inferior

Directional term meaning below, under, or further from the head.

Anterior

Directional term meaning in front, or toward the front of the body.

Posterior

Directional term meaning behind, or toward the back of the body.

Proximal

Directional term meaning closer to the attachment point of a limb to the trunk.

Distal

Directional term meaning further from the attachment point of a limb to the trunk.

Medial

Directional term meaning toward the midline.

Lateral

Directional term meaning further from the midline.

Superficial

Directional term meaning toward the surface of the body.

Deep

Directional term meaning toward the interior of the body.

Parasagittal Section

A body plane that divides the body (or organ) into left and right portions.

Midsagittal Section

A body plane that divides the body (or organ) into equal left and right portions.

Frontal Section (Coronal)

A body plane that divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts.

Transverse or Cross-section

A body plane that divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts.

Body Cavities

Spaces within the body that contain and protect internal organs; examples include cranial, vertebral, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.

Elements of Living Things

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are the basic chemical elements that form all living things.

Macromolecules

Large building materials of the body, including polysaccharides (carbohydrates), proteins, fats (lipids), and nucleic acids.

Cellular Structure

All living things are composed of one or more cells, each with a membrane separating its interior from the outside.

Metabolism

The transfer of energy from one form to another, for example, muscles converting ATP into movement.

Reproduction

All organisms reproduce, through various methods such as binary fission or sexual reproduction.

Hereditary Material

All living organisms have genetic material, DNA, which contains genes determining an organism
's characteristics.

Evolution

All populations of organisms continuously change genetically from one generation to the next.

Homeostasis

The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment regardless of external changes (e.g., constant blood pH, blood sugar, and body temperature).

Negative Feedback Mechanism

A homeostatic process where receptors detect a change (stimulus), signal an integrating center, which then sends a signal to effectors to correct and reverse the change.

Positive Feedback Loop

A homeostatic mechanism where the response increases the original stimulus, pushing the variable further from the set point.

Polar Molecules

Molecules that have a slight charge (not a full ionic charge) and are called hydrophilic, meaning they are water-loving.

Non-polar Molecules

Molecules that do not have a charge and are called hydrophobic, meaning they are water-fearing.

Hydrophilic

Describes polar molecules that are attracted to water.

Hydrophobic

Describes non-polar molecules that repel water.

Organic Molecules

Molecules formed by living organisms, primarily based on carbon atoms.

Monomers

Small, similar components that serve as the building blocks for large macromolecules.

Polymer

An assembled chain of many similar monomers.

Dehydration Synthesis

The process of linking two subunits (monomers) to form a polymer by removing a molecule of water (H2O), forming a covalent bond.

Hydrolysis

The process of disassembling polymers into component monomers by adding a molecule of water to break the covalent bond between them.

Proteins

Complex macromolecules that are polymers of many subunits called amino acids.

Peptide Bond

The covalent bond linking two amino acids together in a protein.

Polypeptide

The assembled polymer of amino acids, which folds to form a protein.

Amino Acids

Small molecules that are the monomers of proteins, each containing a carbon atom, an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a unique functional group (R).

Functional Group (R)

The part of an amino acid that gives it its chemical identity, with 20 different types leading to 20 different amino acids.

Protein Structure

The complex organization of a protein, with four general levels: primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (folding into alpha helices or beta sheets), tertiary (completely folded protein), and quaternary (combination of multiple polypeptides).

Denaturation

The process where a protein unfolds and becomes inactive due to changes in its environment (e.g., increased temperature or lower pH), affecting its shape but not its individual amino acids.

Enzymes

Globular proteins that have a special 3-D shape, allowing them to bind precisely with a specific chemical (substrate) and increase the rate of chemical reactions.

Catalysis

The process of enhancing a chemical reaction, typically performed by enzymes.

Glycoproteins

Proteins that have been modified by combining with a carbohydrate, usually in the Golgi apparatus.

Lipoproteins

Proteins that have been modified by combining with a fat, usually in the Golgi apparatus.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules that store and express genetic information, including Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Gene

A segment of a DNA macromolecule that serves as the blueprint for a specific RNA molecule, which then codes for a specific protein.

Nucleotides

The monomers of DNA and RNA, each consisting of a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A double-stranded helix nucleic acid composed of nucleotides containing deoxyribose sugar and nitrogenous bases A, T, C, G; stores genetic information in the nucleus.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A single-stranded nucleic acid composed of nucleotides containing ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases A, U, C, G; transcribed from DNA and serves as a template for protein synthesis.

Base Pairs (DNA)

Specific pairings of nitrogenous bases in DNA: Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C) always pairs with Guanine (G).

Hydrogen Bond (DNA)

The bond holding together base pairs in the DNA double helix.

Sugar-Phosphate Backbone

The structural support of the DNA molecule, consisting of alternating sugar and phosphate groups linked by phosphodiester bonds.

Carbohydrates

Molecules that make up the structural framework of cells and play a critical role in energy production and storage, containing C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio.

Simple Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates made up of one or two monomer units, such as monosaccharides and disaccharides.

Complex Carbohydrates

Long polymer chains of carbohydrates, also called polysaccharides, which are good for storing energy due to many C-H bonds.

Monosaccharides

Simple carbohydrates consisting of only one monomer subunit, such as glucose.

Disaccharides

Simple carbohydrates consisting of two monosaccharides joined together, such as sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose).

Polysaccharides

Long polymer chains of carbohydrates, also known as complex carbohydrates, that are important for energy storage and structural components.

Fibre

A complex carbohydrate that is not digested in the human digestive tract, adding bulk and acting as a prebiotic.

Soluble Fibre

Fibre that is gelatinous and dissolves in water, such as found in chia seeds.

Insoluble Fibre

Fibre that does not dissolve in water and makes up the bulk of plant cell walls, such as in whole grains.

Lipids

A diverse group of macromolecules including triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids, essential for brain function, organ protection, cell membranes, and vitamin absorption.

Fatty Acids

Chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons) that are subunits of fats.

Glycerol

An alcohol that is one of the two subunits of fats, forming the backbone of triglycerides.

Saturated Fats

Fats that typically have no double bonds in their fatty acid chains, making them generally solid at room temperature (e.g., meat, dairy, butter).

Unsaturated Fats

Fats that have one or more double bonds in their fatty acid chains, making them generally liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil, fish oil).

Trans Fats

Unhealthy fats created by heating liquid vegetable oils in the presence of hydrogen gas (hydrogenation), making them more stable but linked to health issues.

Refined Oils

Vegetable oils (e.g., canola, corn, vegetable oil) that undergo extensive processing, which can damage their unsaturated fats and has been linked to various health problems.

Essential Fatty Acids

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (Omega-3, Omega-6, Omega-9) that the human body cannot synthesize and must be obtained from the diet.

Cholesterol

A lipid primarily synthesized by the liver, essential for maintaining cell membrane flexibility, producing steroid hormones, making bile, and transporting fats in the bloodstream.

Phospholipids

Primary fats found in cell membranes, uniquely amphipathic with two non-polar fatty acid 'tails' and a polar 'head' containing a phosphate group.

Amphipathic

Having both hydrophobic (water-fearing) and hydrophilic (water-loving) parts, characteristic of molecules like phospholipids.

Cell Membrane

The outer boundary of a cell, primarily composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins, regulating what enters and exits the cell.