M3 - enculturation & development

enculturation vs socialisation

Enculturation = learning and adopting the ways/manners of our specific culture without explicit instruction → this is an indirect/implicit process that’s influenced by family, friends, social systems, etc.

Socialisation = learning and internalising the rules/patterns of the society/culture we live in with explicit instruction → this is a systematically and active process of shaping an individual.

shared intentionality

The unique human ability to get into another person’s mind, follow things from that person’s perspective, understand the intentions of that person, and recognise that that person understands our own intentions too.

Shared intentionality allows us to engage in cultural learning (enculturation/socialisation).

cultural actors

The people, systems, social structures and origanisations who ensure that cultural learning (enculturation/socialisation) takes place.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Bronfrenner argues that human development is dynamic, interactive, and that it’s a process between various individuals and ecologies/contexts that we find ourselves in. Children contribute to their own development by interacting with and influencing people around them.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system consists of multiple subsystems:

• Microsystem = the immediate surroundings of an individual, e.g. school, family and peer group.

• Mesosystem = the linkages between microsystems, e.g. how school and family interact with and influence one another.

• Exosystem = the context that indirectly affects an individual, e.g. parents’ workplace.

• Marcosystem = culture, religion, society.

• Chronosystem = the influence of time and history on the other systems.

These layers can also influence one another.

developmental niche (Harkness & super)

Developmental niche = concept that explains how macrosystems influence a child’s microsystems. It consists of 3 parts:

• Physical and social environment.

• Child-rearing and caregiving practices.

• Psychology of the caregivers.

research on the influence of child-rearing practices on children’s behaviour (Whiting and Whiting, 1975)

Whiting & Whiting looked at how child-rearing practices influence children’s behaviour across 6 cultures:

• The child’s personality and behaviour are strongly related to the characteristics of the broader ecology (environment/culture).

• The mother’s work role contribute to children’s social behaviour.

  • When the mother substantially contributes to the family’s livelyhood and/or is the main food provider, children are more responsible and less dependent; when the women are not expected to substantially contribute to the family, children score higher on dependence.

  • Wage-earning mothers in Cameroon stop breastfeeding earlier than subsistence-based farming mothers → since mothers need to leave their children during the day for their jobs, alternatives for feeding the child are used (e.g. baby formula). In contrast, farming mothers typically carry their babies in a sling (because they work on their own farm “at home”) and can breastfeed them during the day.

• Economical factors influence child-rearing → some people may have an easier time raising their kids than others (usually based on affluence/wealth/support network). There are many different types of parenting behaviour, even different reactions to the same (harsh) circumstances; sometimes parents respond positively to these circumstances, sometimes they respond negatively.

nuclear vs extended family structure (Whiting & Whiting, 1975)

Nuclear family structure = typically has 2 parents who raise one or a few kids; the emotional distance to nuclear family members is the same (often very close), and there is geographical distance from grandparents. This family structure is prototypical in many Western countries.

Extended family structure = typically includes grandparents and aunts/uncles. in child-rearing. The extended family often lives together (less geographical distance), and these family members also play a greater role in raising children. This family structure is prototypical in many non-Western countries.

parental goals, parental beliefs & parentL ethnotheories

Parental goals = explicit ideas that parents have about how to raise their children.
(e.g. “raising them to become autonomous”).

Parental beliefs = the way parents view their role as a parent and how their parenting affects their children.
(e.g. “I’m actively shaping my child’s personality”).

Parental ethnotheories = cultural belief systems that parents have; basic understanding of parenting. These are the cultural goals and beliefs parents generally have within a culture.
(e.g. US-parents hold an ethnotheory that spending alone-time with your children is important, whilst Dutch parents hold an ethnotheory that spending time with the whole family is important).

modernisation theory / convergence hypothesis (Inglehart & Baker, 2000)

The modernisation theory (also called convergence hypothesis) states that the diverse human family patterns are bound to change with urbanisation and industrialisation to eventually converge on the Western pattern → In short: all cultures will eventually be like the Western one.

However, modernisation is not uniform, and developmental change goes slowly; the same goes for cultural change. Non-Western collectivist societies (e.g. Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore) have made great economic advancements, but their family models and values have not changed in a similar fashion → this goes against the modernisation theory.

Baumrind’s 4 parenting styles & cultural differences

Baumrind has differentiated 4 general parenting styles, based on 2 dimensions (control & responsiveness/warmth):

• Authoritarian = high control, low warmth → the parent expects the child to be obedient and views the child as needing to be controlled.

• Permissive = low control, high warmth → the parent sets few guidelines and let children regulate their own lives.

• Authoritative = high control, high warmth → firm but fair/reasonable guidelines and affection.

• Neglectful/uninvolved = low control, low warmth → indifference towards the child.

Cultural contexts can differ in what they consider “appropriate/good parenting”. A few examples:

• Monitoring your child & authoritatian style: in more interdependent/collectivist cultures this often conveys that a parent shows active interest and care for their child. In independent/individualistic cultures, monitoring is experienced as too much and it is believed that parents should keep more distance from their children.

• Co-sleeping habits: in interdependent cultures bonding with children is more important, so children often sleep in the same room as their parents for a longer time. In independent cultures autonomy is more important, and therefore children often sleep in their own room at a younger age.

• In Caucasian cultures an auhoritative style is associated with higher grades, whilst authoritarian and permissive styles are associated with lower grades. In Asian cultures, evidence is mixed.

2 main reasons for having children

• Economic/utilitarian reasons: usefulness, economic advantage of bearing children. Particularly in less developed countries (majority of the world), less afluent, mostly rural/agrarian lifestyles.

• Psychological reasons: love, joy, happiness that children bring their parents. Particularly in developed countries (minority of the world), more afluent.

value of children study (VOC; Kağıtçıbaşı, 1982/2002)

The Value of Children study (VOC) investigated motivations for childbearing in 9 different countries (utalitarian vs psychological).

She developed 3 models of psychological and material independence and interdependence:

• Traditional interdependence = typically an extended family with material and emotional interdependence. This is common in the countryside.

• (Individualistic) independence = typically a nuclear family with material and emotional independence.

• Autonomous-related = typically a collectivist family within an urban context, with material independence but emotional/psychological interdependence.

The autonomous-related model may explain why societies/cultures aren’t changing as quickly as the Modernisation Theory suggested. It’s unclear whether this is a stable phenomenon or merely a transition period.

3 prototypical eco-social contexts in relation to parenting strategies (Keller, 2007)

• Independence: encouraging children to pursue their own goals, uniqueness → typically urban, middle-class, modern, post-industrial (WEIRD).

  • The independent parenting strategy is characterised by face-to-face contact and object stimulation; less body contact / body stimulation; mother-child dyad; child is treated as an equal with individuality/will. Both mother and child need time alone to rest.

• Interdependence: maintenance of social harmony, respect for elders, obedience → typically rural, no/little education.

  • The interdependent parenting strategy is characterised by more body contact / body stimulation; less face-to-face contact and object stimulation; tight social network (multiple people outside of family may be caretakers); child is treated as an apprentice/helper and is expected to contribute to the family. Mother and child need skin-on-skin contact to be happy.

• Autonomous related: mixture of the above → previously less opportunities (rural, little education, little wealth), but now better circumstances (urban, better education, wealth).

  • The autonomous parenting strategy is characterised by exclusive mother-child dyad that is embedded in a tight social network; mix between face-to-face contact and body stimulation.

temperament (what is it + 3 types)

Temperament = the biologically based style of interacting and responding to the environment, which exists from birth. Temperament is determined by genetics and reproductive histories, but also by environmental/cultural pressures of previous generations and maternal behaviour towards the child.

There are 3 types of temperament:

• Easy temperament = regular, adaptable, mild style of behaviour, positive mood, responsive.

• Difficult temperament = intense, irregular, withdrawn style of behaviour, negative mood.

• Slow-to-warm-up temperament = infants need time to transition between activities/experiences

Asian children seem to be less irritable than American and Western European children. Moreover, Chinese-American children are generally calmer than European-American and African-American children.

goodness of fit regarding temperament (2 examples)

Goodness of fit = how well the child’s temperament matches the expectations and values of their parents, the environment, and the culture in general. If there’s a mismatch → negative child outcomes. If there’s a good match → better child outcomes.

Cultural setting plays an important role in goodness of fit. A difficult temperament in one culture could be seen as an adaptive temperament in another. Two examples:

• Infants in the Masai who were difficult/fussy, have a greater chance of survival → they need more attention, so they receive more care from parents.

• Behavioural inhibition and shyness (slow-to-warm-up temperament) is not considered good/appropriate in the US, but in China this caused the child to be more readily accepted by peers.

6 dimensions of temperament

• Activity level → motor activity; how much does a child move?

• Smiling and laughter → how happy/sociable is the child?

• Fear / behavioural inhibition → does the child show distress in new/challenging situations? Do they hold themselves back?
  Infants who reacted more distressed/negatively to new stimuli (e.g. they became very agitated) were more likely to become anxious/worrisome young adults.

• Distress to limitations → how does the child react when their goals are blocked?

• Soothability → how easily can the child be calmed down when distressed?

• Duration of orienting → how long can the child pay attention to something when no other stimulation is offered?

attachment & Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment

Attachment = the special bond between the infant and the primary caregiver; a safe attachment provides the infant with emotional security, and the quality of attachment has lifelong effects on the relationships with others.

Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that infants have a pre-programmed/biological basis for attachment, because a strong relationship between caregiver and child is a survival strategy.
For example, children of the Hausa (Nigeria) only explored new situations with the caregiver present, who could shield them from dangers

Ainsworth’s tripartite classification of attachment styles

• Secure = the infant is distressed when the mother/caregiver leaves, but is easily comforted when they return.

• Ambivalent = the infant is distressed when the caregiver leaves, but sends mixed signals upon their return (not easily comforted).

• Avoidant = the infant shows no signs of distress when the caregiver leaves, and upon return avoids reuniting with them

strange situation test & bias

In the Strange Situation Test infants get separated from their mothers for a brief period of time, whilst a stranger is introduced to the infant. The attachment style is based on the infant’s reaction to the separation and the mother’s return.

However, this test has some cultural bias:

• Children who grow up in an extended famly (e.g. a Cameroon farming family) often have multiple caretakers instead of relying only on the mother. This also influences their reaction to parental separation compared to cultures in which the mother is the primary caregiver.

• In Western societies services are often taken care of by strangers (e.g. going to the doctor, school, etc.), whilst in other contexts that would be mostly done by family members. This influences the infant’s reaction on the presence of the stranger.

The optimal (safe) attachment in once culture therefore may not be the optimal attachment in other cultures.

3 cultural models of attachment relationships (Keller)

• Psychological autonomy = strong emotional bond between infant and (one or few) caregivers. Infants are seen as autonomous, unique individuals → this is the foundation for Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s theories.

• Hierarchical relatedness = sense of security is based on being part of a network of community members, not on a relationship with one/few caregivers. Caregivers use a more directional approach in raising children (they tell them what to do).

• Hybrid (autonomous relatedness) = unique attachment relationships with one/few caregivers, but at the same time the social community is also part of the network of attachment.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development & cultural bias

Piaget’s Stage Model: sensorimotor → pre-operational → concrete-operational → formal-operational (→ post-operational).

Cross-cultural research has shown that children go through these stages in the same fixed order across cultures. However, cultural variations exists once children reach the operational/post-operational stages. Within stages, the order in which children acquire certain skills also varies between cultures.

Different cultures/societies value and reward different skills and behaviours → Piaget considered the formal-operational stage to be the final/top stage / the universal end of cognitive development. This reflects his Western perspective. Many cultures consider the thinking skills you need to engage in successful social/interpersonal contexts and relationships as cognitive development.

Kohlberg’s model of moral development

Kohlberg made a stage model with 3 levels of moral development:

• Preconventional = compliance with rules to avoid punishment; gain rewards.

• Conventional = conformity to rules is defined by others’ approval; society’s rules.

• Postconventional = moral reasoning is based on individual principles and conscience.

The first 2 stages of Kohlberg’s theory are universal across cultures, but the postconventional stage is less universal. This is because the assumption that moral reasoning based on your own principles/conscience alone and not on those of the society/environment would only be considered the “best” in a Western cultural environment (US), which is more individualistic.

People from different cultures reason differently on moral dilemmas → this forms the basis of a lot of major intercultural conflicts.

3 types of rules between which children can differentiate (Turiel et al.)

• Moral rules → these apply to everyone.

• Conventional rules → these apply to certain groups of people and can change.

• Personal rules → these apply to individuals and can change.

Jensen’s 3 fundamental moral ethics

Cultures can differ in which kind of ethics they find most important:

• Ehtics of autonomy: emphasis on individual rights and justice.

• Ethics of community: ephasis on interpersonal relationships and community.

• Ethics of divinity: emphasis on religious beliefs and spirituality.