Biotechnology Unit 1 Review

Biotechnology (broad definition)

The study and manipulation of living things or their component molecules, cells, tissues, or organs.

Biotechnology (simple definition)

The manipulation of organisms or their parts.

Insulin

A protein that helps sugar move from the blood into cells.

Abbreviation $DNA$

Deoxyribonucleic acid.

Deoxyribonucleic acid ($DNA$)

A double-stranded helical molecule that stores genetic information used to produce an organism's proteins.

Recombinant $DNA$ technology

Cutting and recombining $DNA$ molecules.

Polymerase chain reaction ($PCR$)

A technique used to copy short pieces of $DNA$ and quickly make millions of copies.

Cloning

A method of asexual reproduction that produces identical organisms.

Fermentation

A metabolic process in which cells convert sugars into energy in an anaerobic environment, producing substances such as acids, gases, or alcohol.

Oxygen requirement of fermentation

No, it occurs in an oxygen-deprived or anaerobic environment.

Diabetes

A disorder involving the uptake of sugar by cells because insulin production is inadequate or insulin is not used effectively.

Proteases

Proteins that break down other proteins.

Antibodies

Proteins produced by the immune system that recognize specific molecules called antigens.

Pharmaceutical

Relating to drugs developed for medical use.

Main goal of biotechnology companies

To produce and sell commercial, for-profit products.

Primary research type in universities and government laboratories

Pure science research.

Profit status of universities and government laboratories

Nonprofit.

Pure science

Scientific research whose primary purpose is to increase scientific knowledge.

Applied science

Using scientific knowledge for practical purposes, including manufacturing products.

Research and development ($R\&D$)

The early stages of product development involving discovery of a potential product's structure and function and initial small-scale production.

Four major domains of biotechnology

Industrial/environmental, medical/pharmaceutical, agricultural, and diagnostic/research.

Examples of industrial and environmental biotechnology

Fermented foods and beverages, engineered industrial proteins, biocatalysts, biopolymers, biosensors, biodefense, and bioremediation.

Domain containing bioremediation

Industrial/environmental biotechnology.

Domain containing fermented foods and beverages

Industrial/environmental biotechnology.

Domain containing biosensors and biodefense

Industrial/environmental biotechnology.

Domain containing medicines made from genetically engineered cells

Medical/pharmaceutical biotechnology.

Examples of medical/pharmaceutical biotechnology

Medicines, antibodies, vaccines, gene therapy, prosthetics, engineered organs or tissues, and designer drugs.

Domain containing vaccines and gene therapy

Medical/pharmaceutical biotechnology.

Domain containing monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies

Medical/pharmaceutical biotechnology.

Examples of agricultural biotechnology

Plant and livestock breeding, aquaculture, horticulture, plant tissue culture, transgenic organisms, and genetically engineered crops.

Domain containing transgenic plants and animals

Agricultural biotechnology.

Domain containing plant tissue culture

Agricultural biotechnology.

Domain containing aquaculture

Agricultural biotechnology.

Examples of diagnostic/research biotechnology

DNA/protein sequencing, genetic testing, DNA fingerprinting, bioinformatics, PCR, RNA interference, ELISA, Western blots, and nanotechnology.

Domain containing PCR

Diagnostic/research biotechnology.

Domain containing DNA fingerprinting and forensics

Diagnostic/research biotechnology.

Domain containing ELISA and Western blots

Diagnostic/research biotechnology.

Domain containing genomics and proteomics

Diagnostic/research biotechnology.

Virus

A nonliving particle containing a protein coat and $DNA$ or $RNA$ that requires a host to replicate.

Abbreviation $NIH$

National Institutes of Health.

Primary function of the National Institutes of Health ($NIH$)

Funds and conducts biomedical research.

Abbreviation $CDC$

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Primary function of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ($CDC$)

Conducts and applies work involving disease prevention and control, environmental health, health promotion, and education.

DNA fingerprinting

A technique used to identify individuals by distinguishing their unique $DNA$ code.

Trend in product variety as biotechnology methods improve

The number and variety of biological products have increased rapidly.

Examples of products developed using natural biological resources

Antibiotics and industrial products such as rubber, turpentine, and maple syrup.

Genetically modified organism ($GMO$)

An organism containing $DNA$ from another organism that can produce new proteins encoded by the acquired $DNA$.

Outcome of gene transfer across species

The receiving organism has the potential to express the trait coded by the newly acquired gene.

Gene transferred in the firefly-to-plant expression experiment

The luciferase, or $Luc$, gene.

Original organism source of the luciferase ($Luc$) gene

A firefly.

Action taken with the luciferase gene in firefly-plant transfer

It is removed from the firefly genome and transferred into the plant genome.

Result of firefly luciferase gene transfer into a plant

The plant contains the luciferase gene and has the potential to express the newly acquired trait.

Abbreviation $t\text{-}PA$

Tissue plasminogen activator.

Medical application of $t\text{-}PA$

Helping dissolve blood clots, including in some patients experiencing a heart attack or stroke.

Reason for producing $t\text{-}PA$ via genetic engineering

Humans naturally produce only small amounts, so genetic engineering allows large quantities to be produced.

Host cell type modified to manufacture human $t\text{-}PA$

Chinese hamster ovary cells, or $CHO$ cells.

Step 1 in producing recombinant human $t\text{-}PA$

Human cells provide the gene for tissue plasminogen activator.

Step 2 in producing recombinant human $t\text{-}PA$

A $DNA$ vector is cut open with a restriction enzyme.

Step 3 in producing recombinant human $t\text{-}PA$

The human $t\text{-}PA$ gene is inserted into the vector.

Molecule created when human $t\text{-}PA$ gene is inserted into a cut vector

A recombinant plasmid containing $DNA$ from both sources.

Step 4 in producing recombinant human $t\text{-}PA$

It enters a Chinese hamster ovary cell and incorporates into the cell's $DNA$.

Term for $CHO$ cells containing incorporated recombinant $DNA$

Transfected or transformed Chinese hamster ovary cells.

End product secreted by transformed $CHO$ cells

Human $t\text{-}PA$ enzyme.

Abbreviation $rh\text{ }t\text{-}PA$

Recombinant human tissue plasminogen activator.

Why $t\text{-}PA$ production in $CHO$ cells is genetic engineering

A human gene is inserted into another organism's cells so those cells produce a human protein.

Antibiotics

Molecular agents derived from fungi and/or bacteria that interfere with the growth or survival of some microorganisms.

Restriction enzyme

An enzyme that cuts $DNA$ at a specific nucleotide sequence.

Molecular scissors of biotechnology

Restriction enzyme.

DNA ligase

An enzyme that joins disconnected strands of $DNA$.

Molecular glue of biotechnology

DNA ligase.

Recombinant DNA

DNA formed by combining $DNA$ from two or more sources.

Escherichia coli ($E.\,coli$)

A rod-shaped bacterium naturally found in mammalian intestines that is commonly used in genetics and biotechnology.

Major goal #1 of the Human Genome Project

Determine the human $DNA$ sequence.

Major goal #2 of the Human Genome Project

Identify all human genes.

Functional goals regarding genes in the Human Genome Project

Their functions and how and when they are turned on and off during a person's lifetime.

Completeness of the original Human Genome Project sequence

No.

Reason for original sequence gaps in Human Genome Project

Some regions of $DNA$ were complex or highly repetitive and difficult to sequence with available methods.

Bermuda Principles

Rules established by Human Genome Project researchers requiring rapid release of $DNA$ sequence data.

Impact of Human Genome Project on data sharing

It increased awareness and openness surrounding rapid data sharing in biomedical research.

Non-traditional research style validated by the Human Genome Project

Production-oriented, discovery-driven research.

Hypothesis requirement in Human Genome Project research

No.

Significance of hypothesis-free research shown by Human Genome Project

Discovery-driven research can still produce important scientific value.

Reason Human Genome Project is considered 'big science'

Its enormous technical challenges required interdisciplinary groups globally and work concentrated in major research centers.

Disciplines represented in Human Genome Project teams

Experts from fields such as engineering, biology, and computer science.

Economies of scale in Human Genome Project context

Concentrating work in a smaller number of major centers made large-scale research more efficient.

Shift in attitude toward large biomedical projects post-HGP

Massive scientific projects became more accepted, partly because of the project's success.

Scope of product lines in typical biotech companies

No. A company usually specializes in a group of similar products.

Examples of biotech specialization areas

Plant products, fermentation equipment, viral therapies, $DNA$ sequencers, or food-processing enzymes.

Sources of new biotech product ideas

Discussions, literature reviews, and creative thinking.

Reagent

A chemical used in an experiment.

Efficacy

The ability of a product to produce the desired result or do what it claims to do.

Large-scale production

Manufacturing large volumes of a product.

Clinical trials

A strict series of tests evaluating the effectiveness and safety of a medical treatment in humans.

Abbreviation $FDA$

Food and Drug Administration.

Scope of $FDA$ regulation

Food, feed, food additives, veterinary drugs, human drugs, and medical devices.

Cystic fibrosis

A genetic disorder that causes mucus to clog the respiratory and digestive systems.

Therapeutic

An agent used to treat a disease or disorder.

Abbreviation $EPA$

Environmental Protection Agency.

Scope of $EPA$ regulation in biotechnology

Environmental issues involving microorganisms, herbicides, pesticides, and genetically modified microorganisms.

Abbreviation $USDA$

United States Department of Agriculture.