Midterm Take

Glial cells serve many functions, including all of the following except:

Provide nutritional support

Form myelin sheath

Receive & transmit information **

Generate rhythms

Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells that serve many functions. Which of the following is not a function of astrocytes? 

Release of growth factors

Rhythm generation

Information processing

Removal of viruses and fungi**

Peripheral vision has a higher proportion of rods, has poor detail vision, and responds poorly to dim light

Ionotropic synapses contribute to _____________, while metabotropic synapses contribute to __________.

Vision and hearing; taste, smell, and arousal

Which of the following drug effects are NOTcorrectly described?

Cocaine blocks the re-uptake of serotonin

Amphetamine blocks the re-uptake of dopamine

Opiates stimulate endorphin receptors

Hallucinogens stimulate serotonin type 2 A receptors

The basal ganglia includes ________ and is important for __________. 

Caudate nucleus, putamen, & Globus pallidus; spontaneous, self-initiated behaviors

The __________ is the area of the frontal cortex that is active during preparation of a rapid sequence of movements and is active for inhibiting habits.

Supplementary motor area

Which of the following cluster of symptoms is consistent with damage to the ventral stream (i.e., temporal cortex and its connections with the visual cortex)?

An individual can avoid bumping into objects while walking in a room but cannot indicate where those objects are or recognize faces.

Damage to the posterior parietal cortex causes which of the following?

Difficulty finding objects in space

The ______ is referred to as the relay station, as it receives the majority of sensory information.

Thalamus

There are numerous methods for recording brain activity; for example, ______ measures faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity, and ______ determines the brain areas receiving the greatest supply of blood and using the most oxygen

Magnetoencephalograph; Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Damage to the cingulate gyrus results in loss of _____

distress in response to pain

Acetylcholine (ACh) is involved: 

Muscular contractions, voluntary movement, and regulation of the sleep-wake cycle

All of the following is true regarding Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy except for:

It occurs almost exclusively in girls**

Onset is typically between 4 and 6 years of age

An early sign is usually enlarged calf muscles

It is caused by a single gene

The ________ is a structure in the medulla that receives input from the taste receptors.

Nucleus of the tractus solitarius

The Autonomic Nervous System automatically responds to signals from the Central Nervous System; however, some voluntary control can be acquired through special training

Group of answer choices

True

False

true

Exposure to teratogens during the embryonic stage (i.e., weeks 3 through 8) is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities. 

Group of answer choices

True

False

true

Individuals who suffer from blindsight continue to experience visual imagery and visual dreams.

Group of answer choices

True

False

False

Individuals who suffer from blindsight have damage to the primary visual cortex (area V1). Because this specific region of the brain is essential for generating conscious visual perceptions, visual imagery, and the visual components of sleep, patients with total cortical damage to area V1 report no conscious vision, no waking visual imagery, and no visual images in their dreams

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA) is an important inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays a role in a variety of functions, including eating, anxiety disorder, vision, and sleep.

Group of answer choices

True

False

true

Huntington’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that is associated with elevated levels of dopamine in the basal ganglia and cerebral cortex.

Group of answer choices

True

False

false

While Huntington's disease involves early, transient increases in dopamine tone or activity that contribute to hyperkinetic movements like chorea, it is not simply characterized by chronically elevated levels across the basal ganglia and cerebral cortex; rather, it is a neurodegenerative disorder marked by the loss of medium spiny neurons in the striatum (basal ganglia) and subsequent complex disruptions in multiple neurotransmitter systems (including GABA, substance P, and changing dopamine receptor/tone dynamics

The dorsal stream is the visual path in the parietal cortex that helps the motor system locate objects and is important for visually guided movements.

Group of answer choices

True

False

true

The evolutionary explanation of behavior describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did.

false

In biological psychology (such as James Kalat's Biological Psychology), a functional explanation (not an evolutionary explanation) describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did (identifying its advantage or how it contributed to reproductive success), whereas an evolutionary explanation reconstructs the historical/evolutionary lineage of the structure or behavior across species (tracing it back to ancestral species)

Olfaction serves many functions and is important in locating sources of food, finding partners, and avoiding hazards. 

Group of answer choices

True

False

true

Heat-sensitive neurons play a role in somatosensation. In the spinal cord, these neurons adapt quickly to changes in temperature.

Group of answer choices

True

False

false

• Heat-sensitive neurons encode absolute temperature and show little to no rapid adaptation in the spinal cord and central pathways, rather than adapting quickly to constant thermal states.

• Cold-sensitive neurons, by contrast, adapt more quickly to changes in ambient or ongoing temperature

ischemic strokes are more common than hemorrhagic strokes and can be treated with tissue plasminogen activator if the drug is administered within less than five hours after the onset of the stroke.

Group of answer choices

True

False

false ; less than 3-4.5 hrs

Briefly describe the special features of neurons. What sets neurons apart from other cells?

According to Kalat’s Biological Psychology (14th edition), neurons are specialized cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information throughout the nervous system. They differ from most other cells because they have specialized structures, including dendrites that receive information, a cell body that maintains the cell, and an axon that transmits electrical impulses. Neurons communicate with other cells through synapses, where chemical neurotransmitters can transmit signals. Their ability to generate electrical signals and communicate with other cells allows them to support sensation, movement, learning, and memory.

Sherrington identified three properties of reflexes that suggest special processes at the synapse. Name the three properties he observed. (Can be a numbered list)

• Reflexes are slower than nerve conduction alone would predict because of the delay at the synapse.

• Strong stimulation produces a stronger reflex because stimulation can activate more neurons and increase the response.

• Repeated stimulation can produce summation, in which multiple signals combine to trigger a reflex response.

Briefly describe the primary and associated symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, as well as the causes of the disease. Make sure to identify the brain areas and neurotransmitters involved in the condition.

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder caused by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, a brain area involved in movement control that connects with the basal ganglia.

• Primary symptoms: Tremor at rest, muscle rigidity, slowed movement (bradykinesia), and difficulty maintaining balance and posture.

• Associated symptoms: Depression, sleep disturbances, cognitive difficulties, and problems with smell and autonomic functions.

• Causes: The disease is associated with the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, which reduces dopamine levels in the basal ganglia. This disrupts the neural circuits responsible for controlling movement. The exact cause is often unknown, but genetic and environmental factors may contribute.

Key neurotransmitter: Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter involved. The loss of dopamine disrupts the balance between dopamine and acetylcholine activity in the basal ganglia, contributing to the motor symptoms.

Briefly describe Myasthenia Gravis disease. Be sure to explain the type of disorder as well as its associated symptoms. 

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune neuromuscular disorder that disrupts communication between motor neurons and skeletal muscles at the neuromuscular junction. The immune system produces antibodies that attack or block acetylcholine receptors, preventing muscles from receiving signals effectively.

• Symptoms: Muscle weakness that worsens with activity and improves with rest, drooping eyelids (ptosis), double vision, difficulty swallowing, difficulty speaking, and weakness in the arms and legs.

• Severe cases: Weakness can affect the muscles used for breathing, causing a potentially life-threatening condition called a myasthenic crisis.

Key takeaway: Myasthenia gravis affects the communication between nerves and muscles, primarily by interfering with acetylcholine receptors, resulting in muscle weakness and fatigue.

The Central Nervous System begins to develop when an embryo is ______.

3 weeks old

is motion that proceeds as a single, organized unit that cannot be redirected once it begins. For example, are movements that is executed as a whole.

Ballistic movement (or Ballistic motion);Saccades

is loss of sensation and voluntary muscle control in the legs.

Paraplegia

Damage to the primary auditory cortex causes deficits in and

sound localization and speech recognition

Dopamine is associated with numerous psychological disorders including , , and . (Name three)

schizophrenia, ADHD, depression

The lobe contains the , which is responsible for visual perception, recognition, and memory.

occipital lobe contains the visual cortex

The ? lobe contains the? , which is the primary target for auditory information, and ?, which is essential for comprehension of language

The temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex (or auditory complex), which is the primary target for auditory information, and Wernicke's area, which is essential for comprehension of language

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is divided into the Sympathetic Nervous System (SyNS) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PaNS). Describe the functions of the SyNS and the PaNS.

Sympathetic Nervous System (SyNS): Prepares the body for stressful or demanding situations through the fight-or-flight response. It increases heart rate, dilates pupils, dilates airways, and slows digestion to help the body respond to a threat.

- Parasympathetic Nervous System (PaNS): Promotes rest-and-digest functions. It slows heart rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, and conserves energy while the body rests and recovers.

Key takeaway: The SyNS prepares the body for action, while the PaNS helps the body relax, recover, and maintain normal bodily functions.

Briefly describe the action potential. Make sure to define an action potential and to indicate the mechanisms of the action potential.

An action potential is a brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron to transmit information to other cells.

Mechanisms of the action potential:

1. Resting potential: The neuron is at rest, with the inside more negatively charged than the outside (about −70 mV).

2. Threshold: A stimulus brings the membrane to threshold, triggering the action potential.

3. Depolarization: Voltage-gated sodium (Na⁺) channels open, allowing sodium ions to enter the neuron, making the inside more positive.

4. Repolarization: Sodium channels inactivate and potassium (K⁺) channels open, allowing potassium ions to leave the neuron, making the inside more negative again.

5. Hyperpolarization: Potassium channels close slowly, briefly making the inside more negative than its resting potential.

6. Return to resting potential: The membrane returns to its resting state through ion channel activity and the sodium-potassium pump, which maintains the ion concentration gradients.

Briefly describe Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, aka Lou Gehrig’s Disease). Be sure to include the type of disorder as well as symptoms and potential causes

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, is a progressive neurodegenerative disorderthat affects motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. These neurons control voluntary muscle movements.

• Symptoms: Muscle weakness, muscle twitching, difficulty walking, speaking, swallowing, and eventually breathing. As motor neurons die, muscles gradually weaken and atrophy.

• Potential causes: Most cases have no known cause and are considered sporadic. Approximately 5–10% of cases are inherited and associated with genetic mutations. Other potential contributing factors, such as environmental exposures, are still being studied.

Key point: ALS damages motor neurons, causing progressive loss of voluntary muscle control. It primarily affects motor function, while sensation is generally preserved

Briefly describe Huntington’s disease. Be sure to explain the type of disorder as well it’s symptoms (both physical and psychological), its cause, age of onset, and relevant hereditary information. 

Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited, progressive neurodegenerative disorder that damages neurons in the brain, particularly in the basal ganglia, which help control movement.

• Physical symptoms: Involuntary jerking movements (chorea), poor coordination, difficulty walking, and problems with speech and swallowing.

• Psychological symptoms: Depression, irritability, mood changes, impulsivity, and cognitive decline, including difficulties with memory, judgment, and decision-making.

• Cause: A mutation in the HTT gene causes an abnormally long CAG repeat sequence, leading to a harmful form of the huntingtin protein that damages neurons.

• Age of onset: Symptoms most commonly begin between ages 30 and 50, although juvenile-onset cases can occur.

• Hereditary information: Huntington’s disease is autosomal dominant, meaning a person needs only one copy of the mutated gene to develop the disorder. If one parent has the mutation, each child has a 50% chance of inheriting it.

The brain is highly vulnerable during early development. Exposure to teratogens and maternal health conditions during the prenatal period can produce lasting physical and behavioral effects. Identify two (2) teratogens and two (2) maternal health factors that can lead to major structural brain/physical abnormalities and/or behavioral difficulties. Make sure to describe the effects of these teratogens and maternal health factors.

Two Teratogens

1. Alcohol: Alcohol crosses the placenta and can interfere with fetal brain development. Prenatal alcohol exposure can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs), which may include facial abnormalities, impaired brain growth, learning difficulties, poor impulse control, and problems with attention and memory.

2. Thalidomide: This medication, historically used to treat nausea and other conditions, can interfere with fetal development when taken during pregnancy. Exposure can cause severe limb abnormalities and other structural defects, including abnormalities affecting the ears, eyes, and internal organs.

Two Maternal Health Factors

1. Maternal malnutrition: Inadequate intake of essential nutrients, particularly folic acid, can interfere with fetal brain and nervous system development. Folic acid deficiency increases the risk of neural tube defects, such as spina bifida and anencephaly, which can cause serious physical and neurological impairments.

2. Maternal infections (e.g., rubella): Certain infections during pregnancy can cross the placenta and interfere with fetal development. Rubella can cause congenital abnormalities, including hearing loss, vision problems, and heart defects, while some prenatal infections can also damage the developing brain and cause cognitive or behavioral difficulties.

Key point: Teratogens are environmental substances or exposures that can harm prenatal development, while maternal health factors, such as poor nutrition or infections, can also disrupt normal brain and physical development. The effects depend on the type of exposure, its severity, and the stage of pregnancy.

Briefly describe the three theories of color vision. Make sure to define them, address what the theories are able to account for, and where the theories fall short (i.e., what can they not explain?).

1. Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz Theory)

• Definition: Color vision depends on three types of cones in the retina that are most sensitive to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light.

• What it explains: Explains how we perceive a wide range of colors by combining signals from the three cone types. It also helps explain color blindness when one or more cone types are missing or malfunctioning.

• Limitation: Cannot fully explain afterimages (such as staring at red and then seeing green) or why certain color combinations, such as reddish-green, are not normally perceived.

2. Opponent-Process Theory

• Definition: Color vision is processed through opposing pairs: red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white. Activation of one side of a pair inhibits the other.

• What it explains: Explains negative afterimages and why we do not normally perceive colors such as reddish-green or bluish-yellow.

• Limitation: Does not fully explain how the three types of cones initially detect different wavelengths of light.

3. Retinex Theory

• Definition: Proposed by Edwin Land, this theory suggests that color perception depends on the brain comparing light reflected from different areas of a scene, rather than relying only on the wavelength reaching the eye.

• What it explains: Explains color constancy, or why objects tend to appear the same color under different lighting conditions.

• Limitation: Does not fully explain all aspects of color perception, including how color is initially detected by the cones or all color afterimages.

Key takeaway: The trichromatic theory explains how cones detect color, the opponent-process theory explains how the nervous system processes opposing colors, and Retinex theory explains how the brain maintains relatively stable color perception under different lighting conditions. These theories complement one another.

Briefly define and describe the stages of development of neurons.

1. Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons through cell division.

2. Cell migration: Newly formed neurons move to their appropriate locations in the developing brain.

3. Differentiation: Neurons develop specialized structures and functions, such as dendrites and axons.

4. Maturation: Neurons grow and develop connections with other neurons, allowing them to communicate effectively.

5. Synaptogenesis: Neurons form synapses, or connections, with other neurons to transmit information.

6. Myelination: Myelin forms around axons, helping electrical signals travel faster and more efficiently.

7. Synaptic pruning: Unused or weaker synaptic connections are eliminated, while frequently used connections are strengthened, making neural networks more efficient.