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Alpha schools

Class notes mention the idea of Alpha schools and their use of AI, but do not give further details.

Puberty definition and basics

Puberty = physical/hormonal changes accompanying sexual maturation, from first hormone surge to full adult physical development; universal.

HPA & HPG axis elements

Hypothalamus → pituitary → adrenal glands (HPA axis) or gonads/ovaries/testes (HPG axis). These are hormonal feedback loops; estrogen/testosterone drive growth and sexual characteristics.

Timing and tempo

Timing = age of onset. Tempo = length/pace of puberty; notes give girls about 3-5 years.

Trends in timing of puberty

The notes say both boys and girls are entering puberty earlier than in the past.

Menarche and spermarche

Menarche = first menstrual period (U.S. average 12 years, 4 months). Spermarche = first ejaculation of sperm (U.S. average 13 years, 8 months).

Brain, body, behavior interaction

The hypothalamus signals the pituitary, which signals glands to release hormones; hormones change brain/body and thoughts, behavior, and bodily experiences can influence hormone levels.

Puberty body changes

Pubertal changes include growth spurts, reproductive maturation, skin changes, voice changes, and hair growth.

Primary vs. secondary sex characteristics

Primary sex characteristics directly involve reproduction; secondary characteristics include skin/voice changes and facial, underarm, arm and leg hair.

Development in girls vs. development in boys - timing of menarche and spermache in relation to body changes

Girls begin puberty about 1.5 years before boys and often appear physically mature before menarche. Boys can be capable of reproduction (spermarche) before looking physically mature.

Effects of body fat, stress, and genes on puberty onset and tempo

Genes and environment affect onset. More body fat, especially in girls, is associated with earlier onset; extremely low body fat with later onset. Stress can relate to earlier onset; the notes mention harsh parental discipline as an exception associated with later puberty for girls.

Body image

Negative body image can affect eating choices, self-esteem and mood; girls and boys both have body-image concerns, sometimes expressed differently.

How does negative body image plague adolescents and contribute to poor eating habits?

Negative body perceptions influence eating choices and unhealthy dieting. Notes say ~60% of U.S. high-school girls try to lose weight; ~1/3 think they are overweight compared with ~1/6 actually overweight.

Current trends in body image issues - influence of social media and GLP-1

Social media can present unrealistic bodies, increasing body shame, depressive feelings and unhealthy eating patterns. GLP-1 is mentioned, but specific effects are not explained in the notes.

Eating disorders - anorexia, bulimia, binge eating disorder

Anorexia nervosa: restrictive/not eating; potentially fatal. Bulimia nervosa: episodes of eating followed by purging (vomiting, excessive exercise, etc.). Binge-eating disorder: consuming unusually large quantities of food without the compensatory purging characteristic of bulimia.

Eating disorders — Anorexia nervosa

Restrictive eating, can be fatal.

Eating disorders — Bulimia nervosa

Eating followed by purging (vomiting/excessive exercise).

Eating disorders — Binge-eating disorder

Very large amounts of food eaten; no bulimia-type compensatory purging.

Effect of puberty on biorhythms

Puberty shifts circadian rhythms (roughly 24-hour biological cycles), with a tendency toward later sleep/wake times.

Delayed phase preference during puberty

Delayed-phase preference = a puberty-associated shift toward falling asleep and waking later.

Eveningness

Eveningness = the body is primed to stay up late; a shift in circadian preference during adolescence.

Behaviors brought on by pubescent delayed phase preference

The notes connect eveningness plus sleep deprivation with higher risk of drug use, sexual activity and delinquency; delayed timing can conflict with early school schedules.

Changes in school start times

Notes cite later starts in California: 8:00 a.m. for middle schools and 8:30 a.m. for high schools; intended to better fit adolescent sleep rhythms.

Brain maturation in adolescence

Reward/emotion regions of the limbic system develop rapidly while prefrontal control regions mature more gradually.

Changes in levels of dopamine and serotonin

Notes describe increased dopamine (reward response) and decreased serotonin (punishment/consequence processing), linked to novelty seeking, strong emotions, risk taking and vulnerability to stress/depression.

Development of prefrontal cortex & nucleus accumbens (in striatum)

Nucleus accumbens = reward system within limbic/striatal circuitry, developing earlier. Prefrontal cortex = planning/judgment/control, maturing into the mid-20s (notes say around 25).

Influence of hormones on brain activity

Puberty-associated hormones increase emotional and reward-system reactivity; this can overwhelm still-maturing prefrontal control and contribute to impulsive choices.

How these changes influence behavior - risk and reward

Greater reward sensitivity and less mature inhibitory control lead adolescents to seek thrilling/novel experiences, respond strongly to peer rewards, and sometimes overlook consequences.

Values of adolescent brain

The notes emphasize excitement, novelty, peer admiration, exploration and reward as salient adolescent priorities; these can be adaptive for learning, too.

Adolescent risk-taking - examples, and trends of risky behaviors

Examples: unsafe driving, drugs, sex and delinquency; notes say adolescent risk-taking has declined recently, potentially related to education and technology.

Thinking in adolescence

Adolescents gain more advanced reasoning but can remain self-focused and emotionally/peer driven in decisions.

Adolescent egocentrism

Adolescent egocentrism = strong focus on oneself, sometimes at the expense of considering others' perspectives.

Rumination

Rumination = repetitive/obsessive self-focused thinking about concerns; may contribute to depression.

Imaginary audience

Imaginary audience = belief that other people continually watch or notice one's appearance, thoughts and behavior; promotes self-consciousness.

Fables (personal and invincibility)

Personal fable = belief that one's feelings/experiences are uniquely extraordinary or awful. Invincibility fable = belief one cannot be harmed by risks that affect others (e.g., unprotected sex or speeding).

Formal operational thought (Piaget)

Piaget's formal operations = thinking systematically about possibilities, using abstract concepts, hypothetical reasoning and logic.

Characteristics

Key features: think about possible rather than only observed outcomes; reason abstractly; use metacognition (thinking about thinking).

Thinking about possibilities (deductive/inductive reasoning & hypothetical thinking definitions; examples)

Deductive = general premise → specific conclusion (top-down); inductive = specific cases → general rule (bottom-up); hypothetical = if/then reasoning about possible situations, even unreal ones. Example: if dolphins are mammals and mammals have kidneys, dolphins have kidneys.

Abstract thinking & examples of newfound interests

Abstract interests become more nuanced and conceptually based: relationships, politics, religion and morality.

Thinking about thinking (Metacognition) - relationship between metacognition and notions of personal fables and imaginary audience

Metacognition = thinking about your thoughts, feelings and strategies. Self-focus may also feed imaginary-audience beliefs and personal fables.

Piaget's balance scale test

Balance-scale task tests whether children account for both weight and distance from the fulcrum when balancing a scale.

4-, 7-, 10- and 14-year-olds performance on it

Age 4: place weights with no systematic balancing. Age 7: try matching equal weights but overlook distance. Age 10: trial-and-error using weights/distance. Age 14: consider possibilities and strategize before placing weights.

How does a 14-year old's performance demonstrate formal operational thought?

A 14-year-old predicts how weight and distance combine before acting; this systematic consideration of possibilities is formal operational reasoning.

Characteristics of adolescent decision making

Teens can reason logically but often choose quick, intuitive and emotionally/peer-influenced responses; priorities differ from adults.

Capability for logic

Adolescents have capacity for advanced/hypothetical logic even when they do not use it in real-world situations.

Preference for intuitive thinking

Intuitive thinking is fast and influenced by stereotypes, feelings and peers; notes say adolescents may favor it over carefully weighing consequences.

Different priorities

Peer admiration, excitement, exploration and immediate rewards may be prioritized over adults' long-term goals; this need not indicate an inability to think logically.

Secondary education

Secondary education comes after elementary/primary school and before college/tertiary education, typically ages ~12-18.

Definition

Middle school and high school, following primary school and preceding tertiary/college education.

Cognitive and psychosocial benefits

Benefits are cognitive (learning and formal thought) and psychosocial (peer connections, autonomy, social development and motivation).

Middle school

Middle school generally covers grades 5/6-8; described in notes as "the awkward years."

Trajectory of academic achievement, behavioral problems and engagement

Notes: academic achievement often slows, behavioral problems increase and engagement drops for many students.

Contributing factors to these trajectories

Contributors discussed: puberty/sexual interest, changing peer ties, disengagement, teacher judgments/bias, and unequal risks (notes flag low-SES boys from minority ethnic groups).

High school

High school continues some middle-school difficulties but improving maturity and coping can help students thrive.

Behavioral changes from middle school

With maturation, many students show improved coping, autonomy, self-motivation and peer encouragement, despite continued challenges.

Social, emotional and cognitive characteristics of high school students

Adolescents develop stronger cognition, peer support, autonomy and self-motivation; social and emotional adjustment can improve as they mature.

Issues surrounding going to college or not

College pressure may promote academic achievement but can cause stress. Notes mention finances, depression and other personal challenges contributing to non-completion; not every graduate attends college.

Vocational education opportunities in US vs. rest of world

Notes say U.S. schools prioritize AP/IB and academic diplomas; other nations often give more attention to vocational pathways that prepare students for work.

High stakes tests

A high-stakes test is an evaluation used to decide important success/failure outcomes.

Definition and examples

High-stakes = critical evaluation determining success/failure. Examples in notes: SAT, ACT, IB and AP exams.

Changes in SAT requirements and reasons behind these changes

Notes refer to changes in SAT requirements and controversies, but do not specify the exact recent policy changes or reasons.

Identity development

Identity = a coherent sense of oneself in roles, attitudes, beliefs, values and aspirations; adolescence asks "Who am I?"

Definition of identity

A consistent understanding of oneself as a unique person in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs and aspirations.

Influence of social media on identity development

Notes discuss social media/technology as affecting social comparison, self-presentation and peer contacts, but do not directly explain its specific effects on identity status.

Identity vs. role confusion (Erikson's psychosocial crisis of adolescence)

Erikson's fifth crisis: identity vs. role confusion. Adolescents try to determine who they are and which social/occupational roles to adopt.

James Marcia's identity status types (diffusion/role confusion, foreclosure, moratorium, Achievement)

Marcia: diffusion = no exploration/no commitment; foreclosure = commitment without exploration; moratorium = exploration without commitment; achievement = exploration followed by commitment.

James Marcia's identity status types — Identity diffusion / role confusion

Identity exploration: LOW. Identity commitment: LOW.

James Marcia's identity status types — Foreclosure

Identity exploration: LOW. Identity commitment: HIGH.

James Marcia's identity status types — Moratorium

Identity exploration: HIGH. Identity commitment: LOW.

James Marcia's identity status types — Identity achievement

Identity exploration: HIGH. Identity commitment: HIGH.

Levels of engagement in identity search and commitment to identity within each

Diffusion: LOW exploration, LOW commitment. Foreclosure: LOW exploration, HIGH commitment. Moratorium: HIGH exploration, LOW commitment. Achievement: HIGH exploration, HIGH commitment.

Associated outcomes

Achievement: higher achievement, moral reasoning, peer intimacy and career maturity. Moratorium: anxiety/authority conflict. Foreclosure: approval-seeking, prejudice/authoritarian ties. Diffusion: withdrawal and low peer intimacy.

Examples

Examples: diffusion "I have not thought about a career"; foreclosure "I will do my parents' career without questioning"; moratorium "I'm trying several careers"; achievement "I explored options and chose one."

Influence of family relationships

Family relations shape adolescent identity, expectations and daily life; independence can create ordinary conflict.

Changes in parental and sibling relationships in adolescence

Parents shift from direct guidance toward advice; siblings become more like mentors/friends though they still argue.

Effective strategies for managing conflict with teens and monitoring behaviors,

Avoid extremes of strictness and leniency. Warm, supportive parent-teen relationships make monitoring most effective; disagreements can promote mutual understanding.

Emotional dependence - Is it healthy, repressive, or both? And, what groups of teens are most likely to be emotionally dependent on their parents?

Emotional dependence can be supportive or restrictive; notes say it is more common among females in minority ethnic groups.

Four aspects of family closeness

Communication; support; connectedness; control.

Cultural influences on family dynamics

Cultures differ in expectations for independence and family obligations; supportive connection matters across cultures.

Universally supportive characteristics of parent-child relationship

Across cultures, parent-child communication and encouragement are linked to less depression/suicide/low self-esteem and to stronger aspirations and achievement.

Cultural differences in parent-child relationships E.g., Familism vs. adolescent autonomy and levels of support.

Familism emphasizes loyalty/connection to family; adolescent autonomy emphasizes independence. Differences can influence expectations, support and tension across generations.

How do conflicting views of Mexican familism and American independence impact the development of Mexican-American teens?

Notes contrast Mexican familism with U.S. independence and describe some Mexican-American teens feeling constrained by parents' expectations; these tensions can shape identity and autonomy.

Peer relationships intro

Adolescents spend about half of waking hours with peers, generally less supervised, with more mixed-sex contact and larger groups/crowds.

Change in these relationships from childhood

Compared with childhood: more time with peers (~50% waking time), more unsupervised activity, more opposite-sex peers and emerging crowds.

Notions of selection, facilitation, immediacy of peers - definitions, influence on adolescent behaviors and examples.

Selection = choosing friends with similar values/interests. Facilitation = friends reinforce good or bad behaviors. Immediacy = peers nearby at the moment have greatest influence (especially mid-adolescence).

Coercive joining

Coercive joining = two peers bond by making derogatory remarks about someone/something; a form of bullying.

Dating intro

Dating is preceded by more informal interaction with other-sex peers; moderate dating can help social skills and romantic experiences strongly affect emotion.

Levels of dating (intense vs moderate vs none) and outcomes associated with each

Moderate dating: positive for social skills. Intense dating before age 15: poorer adjustment and elevated risk of pressure/violence. No dating until after age 18: may relate to fewer social skills/insecurity, though notes say the pattern is nuanced.

Characteristics of adolescent relationships (e.g., frequent breakups) and impact on adolescent behavior and mental health.

Adolescent partners often shift quickly; cheating, flirting or breakups are common in notes. Breakups can trigger depression; peer support helps coping.

Technology

Technology can expand education and peer relationships but bring harassment, cyberbullying and AI/privacy issues.

Benefits and dangers

Benefits: access to learning material and connection with peers. Dangers: cyberbullying, destructive contacts, bots, artificial language and preference tracking/sharing.

Social use of AI - specifics, capabilities and concerns

Notes mention social AI and AI-generated nude photos of students in Beverly Hills, raising consent, privacy, harassment and authenticity concerns.

Psychosocial Problems

Psychosocial problems include internalizing (distress turned inward) and externalizing (behavior turned outward) difficulties.

Externalizing vs. Internalizing Disorders

Externalizing = behavioral problems/substance use, turned outward and undercontrolled. Internalizing = anxiety/depression, turned inward and overcontrolled.

Definitions of each including the level of behavioral control associated with each

Externalizing: outward/UNDERcontrolled, e.g., aggression/drug use. Internalizing: inward/OVERcontrolled, e.g., anxiety/depression.

Teen and adults perceptions of each

Externalizing teens may feel relatively little distress while adults are alarmed; internalizing teens feel significant distress that adults may not notice.

Gender difference

According to class notes, externalizing is more common in males; internalizing more common in females.

Internalizing disorder example - depression

Depression is an internalizing condition, connected in the notes to rumination, vulnerability, stress and depressed mood.

Depressed mood and disorder - definitions

Depressed mood/symptoms differ from major depressive disorder: notes describe major depression as 2+ weeks with severe impairment in daily life; late adolescence greatest risk.

Diathesis-stress model - definition and how it applies to depression

Diathesis-stress = predisposition (e.g., depression family history, learned helplessness/pessimism) + stressful event (e.g., breakup, family death) → depressive symptoms/disorder.